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  • 2023-01-03 08:30:13 发布

可持续城市污水处理系统及其在中国的应用(中英对照)

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目录1可持续城市污水处理系统及其在中国的应用11.1引言11.2可持续城市污水处理系统的发展21.2.1城市污水处理系统的历史21.2.221世纪可持续城市污水排水系统的格局21.2.3传统城市排污系统和可持续城市排污系统的对比41.3可持续城市污水处理系统在中国的实践51.3.1深圳经济特区51.3.2北京地区61.4结论82SustainableurbanseweragesystemanditsapplicationinChina92.1Introduction92.2Thedevelopmentofsustainableurbanseweragesystems102.2.1Historyofurbanseweragesystem102.2.2Thepatternofsustainableurbanseweragesystemsinthe21stcentury112.2.3Comparisonbetweensustainableandtraditionalurbanseweragesystems132.3PracticesofsustainableurbanseweragesystemsinChina152.3.1ShenzhenSpecialEconomicZone152.3.2Beijingregion162.4Conclusions17\n1可持续城市污水处理系统及其在中国的应用摘要中国正面临着水危机。有400多座城市缺乏足够的水资源,一半以上的河流遭到污染。为在21世纪实现可持续发展,首先要为每个人提供足够的水源和保持良好、轻松的水环境。根据可持续发展观念,在这篇文章提出了可持续城市污水处理系统概念(SUSS)。城市污水处理系统,不仅是一个的基本的雨水和污水排水设施、保护城市环境和公共水体,而且也必须有助于恢复水环境,以维持一个健康的社会水循环。可持续城市排水系统应当以城市用水循环再用为基础,以流域水资源的再生和养分循环中心为焦点。深圳经济特区和中国北京地区已经推出。关键词:水,资源,废水,再利用,可持续性,中国1.1引言我国水资源稀缺。根据中国水利部公布的中国水资源公报,2004年中国水资源总量为2.413×1013立方米。它相当于人均每年1856立方米。其中23%,即5.548×1012立方米,用于农业、工业及家庭活动。同时,6930×108立方米的废水从城市排放出。数额不超过半数的废水受到二次处理。我国一半以上的江河受到严重的污染。为了解决水危机,中国政府发表了许多法规,研究提出了许多战略;工程师们已经规划及兴建了许多供水、污水处理工程。但随着中国经济的发展,水资源日益短缺,中国广大地区环境质量不断恶化。为了解决中国水问题和实现可持续发展,一种新用水和处理策略必须建立。基于传统观念的城市污水处理系统的运作是不能持久的,它必须改变。城市污水处理系统,不仅是一个的基本的雨水和污水排水设施,保护城市环境和公共水体。而且也必须有助于恢复水环境,以维持一个健康的社会水循环。社会水循环定义为一个系统,包括从天然机构引水,利用它并排放回水体。一个健康的社会水循环意味着要适度取水、审慎用水、人为废水净化与再利用。要确保在江河上游的用水不影响下游河道水体功能。最终目的是恢复保持城市或流域健康的水环境及最终实现水资源的可持续利用。一个健康的社会水循环也是建立城市再循环的一个重要组成部分。18\n这篇文章的目的是讨论利用健康水循环观念,从功能和设计上考虑可持续城市污水处理系统。本文将介绍一些城市规划的建议,以促进这种健康的水循环。1.1可持续城市污水处理系统的发展1.2.1城市污水处理系统的历史最早的城市污水处理系统建成仅仅是,尽快从一个城市向城市下游河道运输过多的陆上雨水。抽水马桶发明于18世纪,在19世纪欧洲各城市成为普遍。广泛使用抽水马桶改善了城镇居民的卫生条件,但供水量和污水因此而大幅提升。此时,下水道和径流污水系统建为合并的污水处理系统。城市污水处理系统的功能变成这一组合系统,作为卫生工程的重要组成部分以保障居民不受细菌感染。但是,在这期间城市附近的河流和湖泊污染得可怕,因为大量未经处理的废水含有粪便和尿液。20世纪莱茵河的污染是一个典型的例证。城乡居民居住条件的改善是以水环境污染为代价而得到的。废水处理技术的研究和实践始于20世纪初,开始的情形是河流和湖泊污染严重。在过去的世纪里,废水处理技术随着污染物的清除急剧提高,这些污染物包括悬浮固体、有机物,到后来的氮、磷酸盐,到最后的微量污染物质如消毒副产物、激素类物质等。目前,城市污水处理系统的功能如下:(1)尽快运输城市外表的雨水和废水以防洪水和防止流行病的蔓延;(2)处理城市废水以达到或超过国家或地方规定的标准。1.2.221世纪可持续城市污水排水系统的格局上述城市污水处理系统的功能是在水资源丰富足以炫耀,而废水倾入的河流或湖泊有足够自净的能力的假设下形成的。当人口不多或不集中、工业不发达时,这个假设是被支持的。随着工业的发展,人们越来越集中,都市区形成。此时传统的城市污水处理系统只能保护城市内的范围。城市周围地区因城市居民制造的废水和其他废弃物受到严重污染。从整个流域的恢复视角看,城市污水处理系统是整个水分循环的一部分。城市污水系统的功能应该再评估,新任务应该得到支持。城市污水处理系统应发挥重要作用,健全水循环和可持续城市建设。如果我们把一个城市比作人体,18\n水可视为血液。供水系统好比动脉,污水系统类似于静脉。污水处理厂可视为类似于肝脏,因工厂净化城市废水的作用。城市污水处理系统必需要负责废水的收集、运输、净化、改造。城市污水处理系统的关键因素是结束城镇水循环。21世纪城市污水处理系统的功能应该从传统的防涝预防到废水回收利用,水资源可持续利用和流域的恢复的建立。这个新的污水处理系统在本文中称为可持续城市污水排水系统(SUSS),其主要特点表现在图1中。图1可持续城市污水排水系统略图一个典型的可持续城市污水排水系统(SUSS)有四个现代化的特征,描述如下:(1)它是城市用水循环再用的基础。SUSS有责任生产回收废水作为稳定的二级城市水资源。再生水可作为工业冷却水、景观美化灌溉用水、溪流再生用流动水及任何其他非饮用水的应用。大量废水再生利用可以减少淡水开发,从而增进健康的水循环。(2)流域水资源的再生取决于SUSS.在一个流域上,废水从上游城市排入下游城市。从整个流域看,上游可持续城市污水处理系统的流出物将是下游城市水源的一部分。每一个SUSS应该都要有水资源再生能力。(3)SUSS是养分循环的中心。作为废水处理的产物,污泥应妥善处理,返回农田作肥料。废水中的氮、磷应在废水收集、运输和处理过程中回收作为肥料。SUSS在天然养分循环中起着重要作用。注:中国法律规定,工业废水必须进行预处理去除重金属方能排放到城市污水流。(4)SUSS以稀缺资源回收和能源回收为基础。大多数城市居民的代谢产物排入城市污水管网,然后运往废水处理厂,这种废水含有大量的能源。废水或污泥的厌氧处理可能产生甲烷,18\n它可作为燃料。废水中的能源还可通过热泵技术提取。一些珍贵金属或其他稀有资源在废水中也有,尤其是工业污水管道。工业废水中回收有价值的物质可能是工业循环经济中一个重要的部分。1.2.1传统城市排污系统和可持续城市排污系统的对比1、城市污水处理系统的原理在可持续城市污水排水系统规划中,既要强调方便城市污水再生利用也要便于雨水的利用。这是传统城市排污系统和SUSS最根本的区别。在SUSS中废水处理的目的是废水生产再用,叫废水再利用生产厂(RWPPs)。RWPPs和传统的城市污水处理系统中的废水处理厂(WWTPs)有明显的区别。为了实现可持续性城市污水处理系统,作为SUSS的关键部件,雨水下水道、污水处理设施是重要的。雨水是最重要的地表和地下流动水来源,不应象在传统的城市污水处理系统中一样快速流向城市外。在SUSS中,城市雨水应尽可能的保留,并应妥善处理,以便城市的再循环。2、生产废水再生厂的规模、地点、数量按传统城市排污系统规划的规定,再生水生产厂应位于城市的下游。但这种安排使再生水的来源远离自己的消费者。因此增加了再生水管道系统的投资和运行成本。这将是不利的,因为消费者要花费更多的金钱去使用再生水。因此,以下几项应彻底调查才可以决定污水分离区和RWPPs的数量:(1)功能分类及城市的地形(2)目前废水、雨水管道的分布(3)接纳RWPPs污水的水体环境容量(4)目前和未来需求再生水的位置和尺寸。根据以往的经验,大型的废水处理厂(WWTPs)更高效,且每立方米废水建造和运行的成本低于小型的WWTPs。因此,在传统的城市污水处理系统中,WWTPs建得尽可能的大,许多城市只有一个在城市下段的WWTPs。但在SUSS用于RWPP设计中,这个经验未必适用,因为如果只有一个RWPP地处城市下游,要建再生水泵站,废水和再生水的管道长度就会过长。于是决定RWPPs数量的多少不能局限于传统经验.应慎重考虑再生水的实际需求。RWPPs不应像传统型态的城市污水处理系统中WWTPs的规划一样集中在城市下游所在地。在上游或下游或污水管线上的整个城市可设大、中、小型的RWPPs,使再生水管道可以缩短,降低废水再生的生产成本。3、废水处理程度与方法选择18\n在传统概念下的城市污水处理系统,中国的许多城市中相当重视废水的二次处理,以达到综合废水排放标准(GB8978-1996)。但在多数情况下是不足兴建SUSS的。为了提高污水回收额,恢复城市下游水环境,必须使用深度处理乃至超深度处理增加废水的排放标准。当规划一个RWPP,应考虑废水超深度处理的可能性。至少应预留足够的空间,供未来增设超深度处理单元。由于决策官员的反对及巨额的建造和维修费用,在中国规划建设深度或超深度污水处理厂存在着很大的困难。环境与民间研究者和工程师对SUSS的概念和效益起到重要的宣传作用。在目前中国大部分地区传统的城市污水处理系统,废水处理厂(WWTPs)典型的二次处理已经完全建立后,又增添了废水回收的先进工艺。二次处理的污水变成了废水再利用生产厂(RWPPs)进水。当考虑废水从初步到深度处理的整个过程,这种格局使得管线太长、过程太复杂、再生水的生产成本太高。在SUSS中,用于传统污水处理厂的工艺选择原则不适合RWPPs的规划设计.提到废水处理的方法选择时,一级、二级和三级处理或深度处理单元,应被视为对整个系统的一部分。从整个处理顺序上要合理分配去除碳、氮、磷等污染物.这是在再生水生产全过程(RWPWP)之后的观念,在中国已研制约10余年。1.1可持续城市污水处理系统在中国的实践1.3.1深圳经济特区深圳是中国第一大经济特区,也是我国水资源最贫乏七个城市之一。据早些时候的计划,在东深供水工程和东部水源工程建成之后,每年只有0.768亿立方米水可供给深圳.这即为深圳经济特区市民人均每年用水374立方米。水资源短缺是制约着深圳地区发展的关键因素。与此同时,深圳市水环境的污染严重.虽然经二级处理的废水量占深圳经济区废水总排放量的56%,但根据中国地表水环境质量标准(GHZB1-1999),大部分流经该区河流的水流质量是第五级。也就是说,在河水中五天生化需氧量(BOD5)的浓度超过10毫克每升,溶解氧含量不超过2毫克每公升.深圳河流中没有生命,水体的颜色是黑色的,且河流附近有异味。为了恢复深圳经济特区水环境,实现水资源的可持续利用,在200018\n年引导了一个废水回用项目。2001年,中国东北市政工程学院已完成污水回用系统的具体计划。根据这一仍未实现的计划,再生水管网分为六个部分,如图2所示.管线总长度约130千米,再用水总量每天预计有50万立方米。图2深圳市再生水系统略图每个RWPP的规模和地点的确定都需审慎考虑再生水消费者的分配、深圳地区的地貌、目前污水管线位置等。当所有RWPPs已完全建成,模式将改变,其中RWPPs的地点均为城市下游,深圳经济特区的城市污水处理系统将成为水资源循环中心。这将是SUSS概念的应用。1.3.1北京地区北京地区的全年降水量为595毫米,水资源量每年人均不超过300立方米。根据中国地表水环境质量标准(GHZB1-1999),北京地区的地表水水质低于第五级。二十一世纪初始几年,地下水受到严重的开采,地下水水平面每年下降1.29米。2001年,北京市政府和中华人民共和国水利部批复了《21世纪初期(2001至2005)首都可持续水资源利用规划》。在同年六月,北京废水研究组授权“北京地区再生水规划纲要”。在这份报告中,RWPPs的设计和相关的再生水管线排列如3图所示。北京奥运行动规划,承诺北京废水二级处理率将达到90%以上,并努力达成2008年前废水回收率为50%。RWPPs的名称及有关的管道,预计到2008年前完成,见表1。所有这些计划意味着北京地区将应用SUSS。2004年,本文作者完成了题为"北京地区水环境修复对策"尚未出版的报告,得到了北京市教育委员会的支持。我们建议北京地区应从流域恢复和保护、水及污水利用和水环境修复的角度定策略。在此同时,18\n还提出转变北京市污水排水系统功能的计划。据这个项目的研究成果,北京地区已分成12个污水再生回用区域。再生水量预计会达到0.87亿立方米,这是北京地区目前可用淡水总量的三分之一。另外,水污染物量预计将在2010年前减少40%。图3北京市再生水系统略图表1预计到2008年前完成的北京地区再生水系统RWPPsRWPPs的规模(公吨/每天)再生水管道长度清河80,00094北小河60,00036北园10,00014酒仙桥80,00034东坝10,000吴家村80,0006718\n卢沟桥80,00048小红门70,00072五里坨6,00061.1结论可持续城市污水排水系统对二十一世纪的中国来说是水环境整治的生命线.其功能超越传统的雨水和废水排放、防止公共水体污染的任务。可持续城市污水排水系统是实现健康水循环的中心,是资源能量循环应用的基础。他们把人类社会水循环与自然水分循环和谐地联系在一起。在中国,可持续城市污水排水系统的概念正在计划中。深圳经济特区和中华人民共和国首都可能是最先实现可持续的污水排水系统的两个地区。18\n1SustainableurbanseweragesystemanditsapplicationinChina2.1IntroductionWaterresourcesinChinaarescarce.AccordingtoChinaBulletinofWaterResourcespublishedbyChinaMinistryofWaterResources,in2004,thetotalamountofwaterresourcesinChinais2.413×1013m3.Itisequalto1856m3percapitaperyear.Amongthese,23%,thatis5.548×1012m3,wasusedforagricultural,industryanddomesticactivities.Atthesametime,6930×108m3wastewaterwasdischargedfromChinesecities.Nomorethanhalfamountsweresubjecttothesecondarytreatment.MorethanhalfriversinChinaareterriblypolluted.(Gaoetal.,2006).Totacklethewatercrisis,thegovernmentofChinahadpublishedalotofregulations;researcheshadsuggestedalotofstrategies;engineershadplannedandconstructedmanywatersuppliesandwastewatertreatmentprojects(Baietal.,2006;HeandXing,2006;Panetal.,2006).ButwiththedevelopmentofChineseeconomics,waterresourcesisbecomingincreasingdeficientandthequalityofenvironmentconstantlybecomingworseinmostregionsofChina.AnewwateruseandtreatmentstrategymustbeestablishedtotacklethewaterproblemsofChinaandtorealizethesustainabledevelopment.Thefunctioningofurbanseweragesystemsbasedontraditionalconceptsisnotsustainable;itneedstobechanged.Anurbanseweragesystemcannotonlybeabasicfacilityfordrainingrainwaterandwastewaterprotecttheurbanenvironmentinordertomaintainahealthysocialwatercycle.Asocialwatercycleisdefinedasasystemthatincludesdrawingwaterfromnaturalbodies,utilizingitanddischargingitbacktothewaterbodies(Zhang,2001).Ahealthysocialwatercyclemeansthatweshoulddrawwatermoderately,usewatercarefully,purifyandreusewastewaterdeliberately.Weshouldensurethatthewaterutilizationintheupperreachesoftheriversdoesnotaffectthefunctionofwaterbodiesinthelowerreachesoftherivers.Theultimateaimistorestoreormaintainahealthywaterenvironmentforacityorriverbasinandeventuallyachievethesustainableutilizationofwaterresources.Ahealthysocialwatercycle18\nisalsoanessentialcomponentofestablishingacitythatrecycles(Guanetal.,2004).Theaimofthisarticleistodiscussfunctionanddesignconsiderationsforasustainableurbanseweragesystemusingconceptsassociatedwithahealthywatercycle.Inthispaperwewillintroducesomeurbanplanningsuggestionstopromotesuchahealthywatercycle.2.1Thedevelopmentofsustainableurbanseweragesystems2.2.1HistoryofurbanseweragesystemTheearliesturbanseweragesystemswereconstructedtoonlytransportexcessoverlandrainwaterasquicklyaspossiblefromacitytoriversthatweredownstreamfromthecity(Aminuddinetal.,2000;Angelakisetal.,2005).Theflushtoiletwasinventedinthe18thcenturyandbecamewidespreadthroughoutthecitiesofEuropeinthe19thcentury.Thewidespreaduseofflushtoiletsimprovedthesanitationconditionsofurbanresidents,buttheamountofwatersupplyandseweragerequiredasaresultincreaseddramatically.Atthistime,thesewerandrun-offseweragesystemswereconstructedasacombinedseweragesystem.Thefunctionoftheurbanseweragesystemchangedtothiscombinedsystemtoprotecttheinhabitantsfrombacterialinfectionasthemajorcomponentofsanitaryengineering.However,riversandlakesnearcitiesbecameterriblypollutedduringthisperiodbecauseoflargeamountofuntreatedwastewatercontainingfecesandurine.ThepollutionoftheRhineRiverinthe20thcenturyisatypicalillustration(Carel,1998).Theimprovementsinlivingconditionsofcityinhabitantswereobtainedatthepriceofpollutionofthewaterenvironment.Researchandpracticesofwastewatertreatmenttechnologybeganintheearly20thcenturywithastartingconditioninwhichtheriversandlakeswerebadlypolluted.Duringthepastcentury,thetechnologiesassociatedwithwastewatertreatmentadvanceddramaticallywiththeremovalofpollutants,includingsuspendedsolidsandorganics,subsequentlynitrogenandphosphatesandfinallymicropollutants,suchasdisinfectionbyproductsandhormone-likesubstances(Henze,1997).Currently,thefunctionsofurbanseweragesystemsareasfollows:(1)transportrainwaterandwastewateroutsideacityassoonaspossibletoprotectagainstfloodsandpreventthespreadofepidemics;(2)treatmunicipalwastewaterto18\nreachorexceedthestandardsofstateorlocalregulations.2.2.1Thepatternofsustainableurbanseweragesystemsinthe21stcenturyTheabove-mentionedfunctionsofurbanseweragesystemwereformedunderthehypothesisthatwaterresourceswereabundantenoughtosplurgeandthattheriversorlakesthatwastewaterwasdumpedintohadenoughcapacityforself-purification.Thishypothesiswassupportedwhenpopulationswerenotverylargeorcentralizedandindustrieswereunderdeveloped.Asindustriesdeveloped,peoplebecameincreasinglycentralizedandmetropolitanareasemerged.Atthistimetraditionalurbanseweragesystemscouldonlyprotecttheareawithincities.Theregionsaroundthecitieswerebadlypollutedbywastewaterandotherwastesproducedbythetownspeople.Fromtheperspectiveoftherestorationofentirewatersheds,urbanseweragesystemsarepartoftheoverallhydrologicalcycle.Thefunctionofurbanseweragesystemsshouldbereevaluatedandnewmissionsshouldbeespoused.Urbanseweragesystemsshouldplayanimportantroleinahealthywatercycleandinsustainableurbanconstruction.Ifwecompareacitytoahumanbody,watercanbethoughtofasblood.Thewatersupplysystemisanalogoustothearteriesandthewastewatersystemisanalogoustotheveins.Awastewatertreatmentplantcouldbeconsideredasanalogoustotheliverbecauseoftheplant’sroleinpurifyingurbanwastewater.Urbanseweragesystemsareofnecessityresponsibleforwastewatercollection,transportation,purificationandreclamation.Anurbanseweragesystemisthekeyfactorforclosingtheurbanwatercycle.Thefunctionofanurbanseweragesysteminthe21stcenturyshouldshiftfromtraditionalwaterloggingpreventiontotheestablishmentofwastewaterrecycling,sustainableutilizationofwaterresourcesandwatershedrestoration.Thisnewurbanseweragesystemiscalledasustainableurbanseweragesystem(SUSS)inthisarticleandasketchofitskeyfeaturesisshowninFig.1.AtypicalSUSShasfourmodernfeaturesdescribedasfollows:(1)Itisthebasisforurbanwaterreuseandrecycling.ASUSShasthedutyofproducingreclaimedwastewaterasasteadysecondaryurbanwaterresource.Reclaimedwastewatercan18\nbeusedascoolingwaterforindustry,irrigationwaterforlandscaping,flowingwaterforrivuletregenerationandforanyotherapplicationwherenon-potablewatermaybeused.Alargevolumeofreclaimedwastewatercouldreducefreshwaterexploitation,andthuspromoteahealthywatercycle.Fig.1Sketchofasustainableurbanseweragesystem.(2)WaterresourceregenerationinawatershedhingesonSUSS.Inawatershed,wastewaterdrainedfromuprivercitiesflowsintodownrivercities.OutflowofupriverSUSSwouldbeapartofthewaterresourceofdownrivercitiesthroughoutanentirewatershed.EachSUSSshouldhavethiswaterresourceregenerationcapacity.(3)SUSSiscentraltonutrientrecycling.Asaproductofwastewatertreatment,sludgeshouldbetreatedproperlyandreturnedtofarmlandasfertilizer.Nitrogenandphosphatesinwastewatershouldberecoveredasfertilizerduringthewastewatercollection,transportationandtreatmentprocess.SUSSplaysanimportantroleinthereparationofnaturalnutrientcycles.Note:Chineselawstatesthatindustrialwastewatermustbepretreatedfortheremovalofheavymetalsbeforebeingreleasedintothemunicipalwastewaterstream.(4)SUSSisthebasisforscarceresourcerecoveryandenergyrecovery.Mostmetabolicproductsofcitydwellersaredischargedintourbanseweragepipelinesystemsandaretransportedtothewastewatertreatmentplant.Thiskindofwastewatercontainsmuchenergy.Anaerobictreatmentofwastewaterorsludgecouldpotentiallyproducemethane,whichcan18\nbeusedasfuel(Chanetal.,1999).Theenergycontainedinwastewatercouldalsobeextractedbyheatpumptechnology(Baeketal.,2005).Certainvaluablemetalsorotherscarceresourcesarealsofoundinwastewater,particularlyinindustrialseweragepipelines.Recyclingofvaluablesubstancesinindustrialwastewatermaybeanimportantpartofanindustrialcirculareconomy.2.2.1Comparisonbetweensustainableandtraditionalurbanseweragesystems1、PrinciplesofanurbanseweragesystemplanInsustainableurbanseweragesystemplanning,conveniencebothformunicipalwastewaterreclamationandforrainwaterutilizationshouldbeemphasized.ThisisthefundamentaldifferencebetweenaconventionalurbanseweragesystemandSUSS(Zhang,2001).TheaimoftreatmentofwastewaterinaSUSSistoproducereclaimedwastewaterinwhatarecalledreclaimedwastewaterproductionplants(RWPPs).TherearedistinctdifferencesbetweenRWPPsandwastewatertreatmentplants(WWTPs)inatraditionalurbanseweragesystem.AskeycomponentsofSUSS,rainwatersewersandtreatmentfacilitiesareimportanttorealizethesustainabilityoftheurbanseweragesystem.Rainwateristhemostimportantsourceofsurfaceflowandundergroundflowandshouldnotdraindownfromthecityasquicklyaspossible,asitdoesinatraditionalurbanseweragesystem.InaSUSSrainwatershouldberetainedinthecityaslongaspossibleandshouldbetreatedproperlyinordertoberecycledwithinthecity.2、Thescale,locationandnumberofreclaimedwastewaterproductionplantsAccordingtotheregulationsoftraditionalurbanseweragesystemplanning,reclaimedwastewaterproductionplantsshouldbelocatedinthelowerreachesofthecity.Butthisarrangementplacesthesourcesofreclaimedwastewaterfarfromtheirconsumers.Thustheinvestmentandoperationalcostsofreclaimedwastewaterpipelinesystemsincrease.Thiswouldnotbefavourable,asconsumerswouldneedtospendmoremoneywhentheyusethereclaimedwastewater.Therefore,thefollowingshouldbeexhaustivelyinvestigatedinmakingadecisionastotheseweragezoneseparationandthenumberofRWPPs:(1)thefunctional18\nseparationandtheterrainofthecity,(2)thepresentwastewaterandrainwaterpipelinedistribution,(3)theenvironmentalcapacityofthewaterbodiesthataccepttheeffluentofRWPPsand(4)thelocationanddimensionsofpresentandfuturedemandsofreclaimedwastewater.Basedonpastpracticalexperience,large-scaleWWTPsarehighlyefficientandthecostofrunningandconstructionpercubicmeterofwastewaterislowerthansmallWWTPs.Soinatraditionalurbanseweragesystem,WWTPsareconstructedtobeaslargeaspossibleandmostcitieshaveonlyoneWWTPinthelowerreachesofcities.ButinaSUSSusinganRWPPdesign,thisexperiencemaynotbeapplicablebecausethelengthofpipelinesforwastewaterandreclaimedwastewateraretoolongsoreclaimedwastewaterpumpingstationsmustbebuiltifonlyoneRWPPislocatedinthelowerreachesofcities.ThereforedecisionsaboutthenumberofRWPPscannotbelimitedbytraditionalexperience.Thepracticaldemandsofreclaimedwastewatershouldbecarefullyconsidered.RWPPsshouldnotbecentralizedinthelowerreachesofthecity,asarethelocationofWWTPsintraditionalurbanseweragesystemplanning.Large,moderateorsmallRWPPscanbelocatedupstreamordownstreamorthroughouttheentirecityoverthelengthofthewastewaterpipelinesothatthereclaimedwastewaterpipelinecanbeshortenedandthecostofreclaimedwastewaterproductionreduced.1、WastewatertreatmentdegreeandprocessselectionUndertheconceptofatraditionalurbanseweragesystem,manycitiesinChinapaycon-siderableattentiontothesecondarytreatmentofwastewaterinordertoattaintheIntegratedWastewaterDischargeStandard(GB8978-1996).ButitisnotsufficientinmostinstancestoconstructaSUSS.Itisnecessarytoincreasethedischargecriteriaforwastewatertreatmentbyusingadvancedtreatmentsorevensuper-advancedtreatmentsinordertoincreasetheamountofwastewaterreuseandtorestorethewaterenvironmentdownstreamfromthecities.WhenplanninganRWPP,thepossibilityofsuper-advancedtreatmentofwastewatershouldbeconsidered.Ataminimum,sufficientspaceshouldbesetasideanddedicatedforthefutureadditionofasuper-advancedtreatmentunit.InChinagreatdifficultiesexistinplanningandconstructingadvancedorsuper-advanced18\nwastewatertreatmentplantsduetotheoppositionofdecision-makingofficialsandthehugecostofconstructionandmaintenance.EnvironmentalandcivilresearchersandengineersplayanimportantadvocacyrolefortheconceptandbenefitsofSUSS.InthetraditionalurbanseweragesystemspresentinmostofChina,advancedprocessesforreclaimingwastewaterhavebeenaddedonlyaftertypicalsecondarytreatmentWWTPshadalreadybeencompletelybuilt.TheeffluentofsecondarytreatmentbecomestheinfluentofRWPPs.Thispatternhasmadethepipelinestoolongandtheprocesstoocomplexandthecostsofreclaimedwastewaterproductiontoohighwhenconsideringtheentireprocessfromprimarytoadvancedtreatmentofwastewater.InSUSS,theprinciplesusedintheselectionoftheprocessesfortraditionalwastewatertreatmentplantsarenotsuitedforaRWPPsplananddesign.Primary,secondaryandtertiaryoradvancedtreatmentunitsshouldberegardedaspartsofthewholesystemwhenitcomestotheselectionofprocessesforwastewatertreatment.Removalofcarbon,nitrogen,phosphateandotherpollutantsshouldbedistributedreasonablythroughouttheentiretreatmentsequence.ThisistheconceptbehindtheReclaimedWastewaterProductionWholeProcess(RWPWP),whichhasbeenresearchedforabouttenyearsinChina.2.1PracticesofsustainableurbanseweragesystemsinChina2.3.1ShenzhenSpecialEconomicZoneShenzhenisthefirstandlargestspecialeconomiczoneanditisalsooneofthesevencitiesthataremostdeicientinwaterresourcesinChina(Xiongetal.,2004).Accordingtoanearlierplan,aftertheDongshenWaterSupplyProjectandtheEasternWaterResourceProjectwerecompleted,only0.768billionm3ofwaterperyearcouldbeprovidedtoShenzhen.Thistranslatesto374m3ofwaterpercapitaperyearforcitizensoftheShenzhenSpecialEconomicZone(Xiongetal.,2004).ThisshortageofwaterresourcesisacriticalfactorrestrictingthedevelopmentoftheShenzhenregion.Meanwhile,thewaterenvironmentofShenzhenhasbecometerriblypolluted.Althoughtheamountofwastewatertreatedbysecondarytreatmentwas56%ofthetotalwastewaterdischargedbytheShenzhenSpecialEconomicZone,thequalityofmostofthewaterinrivers18\nwhichflowacrossthezoneisClassVaccordingtotheEnvironmentalQualityStandardforSurfaceWaterofChina(GHZB1-1999)(WangandLi,2002).Thatistosay,the5-daybiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD5)concentrationexceeds10mg/landthedissolvedoxygenconcentrationisnomorethan2mg/lintheriverwater.ThereisnolifeinShenzhenrivers,thewaterbodiesareblackincolourandthereisabadodourneartherivers.TorestorethewaterenvironmentandrealizesustainableutilizationofwaterresourcesfortheShenzhenSpecialEconomicZone,awastewaterreuseprojectwasconductedin2000(WangandLi,2002).In2001,thespecificplanofthewastewaterreusesystemwasfinishedbytheChinaNortheastMunicipalEngineeringInstitute.Accordingtothis,asyetunrealized,plan,reclainmedwastewaterpipenetworksweredividedintosixpartsasshowninFig.2.Thetotallengthofpipelinewillbeabout130kmandthetotalvolumeofreclaimedwastewaterisprojectedtobe500,000m3perday.ThescaleandlocationofeachRWPPhasbeendeterminedbasedonthecarefulconsid-erationofdistributionofreclaimedwastewaterconsumers,thelandformoftheShenzhenregion,thepresentwastewaterpipelinelocations,etc.WhenalltheRWPPshavebeencompletelyconstructed,thepattern,inwhichthelocationsoftheRWPPswerealldownstreamofthecity,willbechangedandtheurbanseweragesysteminShenzhenSpecialEconomicZonewillbecomeacentreofwaterresourcerecycling.ThiswillthenbeanapplicationoftheconceptofSUSS.Fig.2SketchofreclaimedwastewatersysteminShenzhenCity.2.3.1Beijingregion18\nTheannualprecipitationoftheBeijingregionis595mmandthequantityofwaterresourcesisnomorethan300m3percapitaperyear(Wang,2003).ThequalityofsurfacewaterintheBeijingregionisworsethanClassV,accordingtotheEnvironmentalQualityStandardforSurfaceWaterofChina(GHZB1-1999).Groundwaterhasbeenseriouslyexploitedandthelevelofgroundwaterdecreased1.29meachyearintheinitialyearsofthe21stcentury(Wang,2003).In2001,theGovernmentofBeijingandtheMinistryofWaterResourcesofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaauthorized“theCapitalSustainableWaterResourcesUtilizationattheBeginningofthe21stCentury(from2001to2005)”.InJuneofthesameyear,theBeijingGroupofWastewaterauthorizedthe“OutlinePlanofReclaimedWastewaterinBeijingRegion”.InthisreporttheplansforRWPPsandtherelatedreclaimedwastewaterpipelinesarelaidoutasshowninFig.3.TheBeijingOlympicsActionPlanpromisesthatBeijingwillattainarateofsecondarytreatmentofwastewaterofleast90%andendeavourtoreacharecyclingrateofwastewaterof50%before2008.ThenameoftheRWPPsandrelatedpipelinesthatarescheduledforcompletionbefore2008areshowninTable1.AlltheseplansmeanthatSUSSwillbemandatedfortheBeijingregion.In2004,thewritersofthispaperfinishedanunpublishedreportentitled“WaterEnvironmentRestorationStrategiesforBeijingRegion”supportedbytheBeijingMunicipalCommissionofEducation.WesuggestedstrategiesfortheBeijingregionfromtheperspectiveofwatershedrestorationandprotection,waterandwastewaterutilizationandwaterenvironmentrestoration.Atthesametime,aplanforchangingthefunctionoftheseweragesysteminBeijingcitywasalsoputforward.Accordingtotheresearchresultsofthisproject,theBeijingregionhasbeendividedinto12wastewaterreclamationandreuseareas.Theamountofreclaimedwastewaterisprojectedtoreach0.87billionm3whichisone-thirdofthetotalamountofcurrentlyavailablefreshwaterintheBeijingregion.Inadditiontheamountofwaterpollutantsisexpectedtobereducedby40%before2010.2.1ConclusionsSustainableUrbanSewerageSystemsforthe21stcenturyinChinaarethelifelineof18\nwaterenvironmentalrestoration.Theirfunctiongoesbeyondthetraditionaltaskofdischargingrainwaterandwastewaterandpreventingthepollutionofpublicwaterbodies.SustainableUrbanSewerageSystemsareatthecentreofrealizationofhealthywaterrecyclingandarebasictoresourcesandenergyrecycling.Theyharmoniouslyconnectthesocialwatercycleofhumansocietywiththenaturalhydrologicalcycle.TheconceptofsustainableurbanseweragesystemsisbeingplannedinChina.TheShenzhenSpecialEconomicZoneandtheCapitalofthePeople’sRepublicofChinawillprobablybethefirsttworegionstorealizeSustainableUrbanSewerageSystems.Fig.3SketchofreclaimedwastewatersysteminBeijingcity.Table118