公路建设可行性研究报告 42页

'troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot公路建设可行性研究报告1、概述1.1历史背景与任务依据1.1.1.历史背景××县地处××西部，武夷山南侧，××××，东临※※，南接连城，西北与※※毗邻，东北与※※接壤。全县总面积×××平方公里，辖××个乡镇、×××××个行政村、××个居委会，总人口×××万。全县共有×××个基层党（工）委，×××个党总支，×××个党支部，其中农村党支部111个、社区党支部□□个。全县共有党员×××名，其中农村党员○○○○名、妇女党员○○○名。××县历史悠久，古称◎◎◎，宋元符元年（1098年）置县至今已909年，因县城○○○环绕，碧水萦回，故名××。考古学家在沙芜狐狸洞发现古人类化石，填补了××旧石器时代考古空白，把福建人类的活动历史由六、七千年前推进到一万年以前，成为“闽人之源”。民族英雄文天祥曾写下“山高不碍乾坤眼，地小能容宰相身”的诗句称赞××。明朝吏部尚书裴应章、我国著名的军事防化专家◎◎◎◎、中国大提琴◎◎◎◎◎◎的祖籍都是××。××是全国21个中央苏区县之一，在这块红色土地上，曾留下毛泽东、朱德、彭德怀等老一辈无产阶级革命家的战斗足迹。1930年，毛泽东同志途经××，写下了《如梦令?元旦》，描绘出革命前景。经过改革开放二十多年的建设，××县国民经济和社会发展取得长足进展。2006年，全县地区生产总值15.75亿元，比增12.3%；农林牧渔总产值9.65亿元，比增6.8%；县属规模工业产值10.32亿元，比增22%；全社会固定资产投资7.8亿元，比增63%；财政总收入11411万元，比增20.41%；其中县级一般预算收入5175万元，比增16.03%；出口创汇2204万美元；农民人均纯收入4489元。但是由于其区位劣势，历史上被喻为“南方塞外地”，是我省西部典型的内陆山区，经济增长速度比较缓慢，基础设施落后，因此，××县综合经济实力仍落后于沿海及周边区县。为了加快县域经济的发展，××县以××troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot建设海峡西岸经济繁荣地带，加强山海协作作为契机，积极主动加强与沿海地区的横向联系，积极调整经济结构和产业发展，充分开发旅游资源和矿产资源，加大基础设施投资力度，以达到刺激经济快速发展。随着改革开放的不断深入，各种产业快速发展，库区移民的生活水平也不断提高，但交通基础设施滞后，制约当地库区移民经济发展，并给当地库区移民的生产、生活带来众多不便。为全面建设社会主义新农村,构建和谐社会,加快库区移民奔小康步伐，尽快改善库区移民的生产、生活条件，本项目的改建势在必行。当地政府和沿线的群众非常盼望和支持本项目的尽早实施。1.1.2.任务依据a.××县××镇的工可编制委托书；b.交通部颁发的《水运、公路建设项目可行性研究报告编制办法》；c.国家计委、建设部计投资（2006）530号《建设项目经济评价方法与参数》（第三版）；d.交通部颁发《公路工程技术标准》JTGB01-2003及现行有关标准规范；e.《××市农村公路发展规划》；f.《××县农村公路发展规划》；1.1.3.研究范围项目工程可行性研究范围包括以下八个方面：1.项目区域交通现状分析；2.交通量发展预测；3.公路建设规模及技术标准；4.备选方案拟定及推荐方案工程概况；5.投资估算及资金筹措；6.实施方案；7.经济评价；8.问题和建议；1.2.研究的主要结论1.2.1.建设理由1、改善公路行车环境，是沿线库区移民的迫切愿望。由于该路段的落后状况，制约当地库区移民经济发展和交流，该项目的实施能改善行车环境，促进当地库区移民经济发展和方便于城乡一体化的实施，该项目的实施还能改变农村“单一”种养等传统模式，促进产业结构的调整，有利于剩余劳动力的转移，加快当地库区移民奔小康的步伐，并能提供良好的投资环境。2、是完善路网结构的需要，本项目为××县最为重要的县道之一。北连※※可直通内陆省份江西，往东、南可直通××、※※、厦门等地。同时还是××连接闽西北各旅游景区最重要的旅游通道，它南连本县的××、×××景区，××××的×××××景区，北连※※的※※troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot景区，经由本线路从××至※※可比原经※※城关至※※缩短里程30公里。因此本项目的实施对于××县的路网、旅游发展起着重要的作用。3、提高公路路况，有利于当地自然资源特别是休闲旅游的开发需要。区域内山清水秀、空气清新、盛夏凉爽、生态环境保护良好，特别是具有丰富的近郊旅游休闲度假资源，路线经过的暖水村是当地有名的温泉胜地，温泉水温常年保持在38度左右，日出水量300吨左右，是度假休闲的好去处。同时暖水村是水产养殖基地，基头村是山地鸡养殖基地，是××县重要的付食品供应基地。4、改善山区公路，加大农村扶贫基础设施建设，是振兴当地库区移民经济发展的需要。××是革命老区，同时也是经济落后的山区县城。改革开放以来，虽然全县的工农业生产飞跃发展，但是与沿海地区相比，××山区经济远落后于沿海地区经济，而造成这种落后状况的根本原因，则是山区农村交通基础设施差，不易于交流，原有公路成为阻碍农村经济发展的“瓶颈”，因而振兴当地库区移民经济发展，改善农村公路路况和行车环境，是十分必要的，有利于当地库区移民经济繁荣，为振兴当地库区移民经济发展创造有利条件。1.2.2.移民概况及项目对移民产生的效益1、沿线移民村镇概况※※线沿线共有三个行政村，总人口4123人，占××镇农业人口的30％，其中畲族人口占全镇农业人口的5.7％。三个行政村中有2000多人为库区移民。最早的移民为1962年的※※水库移民，还有※※坪电站的移民，最近的移民为90年代末期的※※水库移民。同时还有※※水库移民至※※再移民至此的二次移民。境内土壤肥沃，林木苍郁，森林覆盖率达73％，盛产松、杉、毛竹等林木。2、沿线移民村镇的主要经济产业沿线三个行政村主要是以农业为主，是××县的付食品和蔬菜供应基地，区域内有稻田养鱼、山塘养鱼、水面养鸭、果山养鸡、竹山养羊以及大棚蔬菜等，同时是烤烟、商品粮基地。采取烟粮轮种的方式，种植烤烟2300多亩，出栏鸡鸭22万只，有造林基地8000亩，山苍籽基地3800亩。沿线的桥下村大部分为闽南移民，吃苦奈劳，主要从事泥水、建筑行业，主要的工作地点××城关。3、项目实施后对移民产生的效益分析troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot由于交通的不便，使区域的优势难以发挥，移民的经济收入难以大幅提高，各种资源的附加值无法充分体现，目前的人均年收入在3500元左右。项目实施后，由于交通的便利，使原来需要40分钟的路程缩短到15分钟即可到达，大大的节省了通达时间，各种费用也会大幅下绛，相应的产品附加值将大幅提高，移民的收入也将相应提高。随着人民生活的大幅提高，对生活质量的要求也越来越高，郊区的休闲度假也成为了时尚，该项目实施后，处在暖水村的温泉将得到开发，同时农家乐等休闲项目也将在近郊兴起。由于交通的改善，将引起移民村镇的经济结构和产业的改变，有助于增加移民的收入，从而提高移民的生活水平，预计该项目实施后将给沿线村民带来可观的经济效益，年收入增长在10-15％之间。1.2.3.交通量发展预测根据本项目路段的交通量调查以及项目影响区国民经济发展与公路运输指标的关系，进行交通量预测，其预测结果详见表1-1。交通量预测结果表单位：辆/日（小客车）表1-1年份2008201020152017趋势交通量610670835908诱增交通量6174109122最终交通量67174494410301.3.建设规模、标准及主要控制点本项目起点位于××××镇桥下村的白石桥，经开荒××××××××××××，终点为××××××。路线全长9.56公里，采用部颁四级公路标准，路基宽6.5米，路面宽6.0米。1.3.1.技术标准本项目技术标准采用交通部颁发的JTGB01-2003《公路工程技术标准》中V=20Km/h四级公路标准。主要技术标准表表1-2指标名称指标备注建设规模（公里）9.56公路等级四级设计行车速度（公里/小时）20路基宽度（米）6.5小桥涵与路基同宽路面宽度（米）6.0troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot一般最小平曲线半径（米）30极限最小平曲线半径（米）15停车视距（米）40最大纵坡（%）9路基设计洪水频率1/25小桥涵设计洪水频率1/25桥涵设计荷载公路—Ⅱ级1.3.3.3.主要控制点起点位于××××镇桥下村的白石桥，经开××××××××，终点为××××××。1.3.4.主要工程数量本项目推荐方案充分利用现有老路，力求路基土石方填挖平衡，推荐方案主要工程数量见表1-3。主要工程数量表表1-3项目工程名称单位数量一路线长度公里9.56二路基土石方工程立方米182641土方立方米146092石方立方米3655三填方立方米10291四路面工程公里9.561路面垫层（15cm）平方米6454025％水泥稳定基层（15cm）平方米549803砼面层（18cm）平方米50200五桥涵工程米/道240/301涵洞米/道240/302小桥米/座30/1七排水防护工程立方米800troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot1.3.5.投资估算根据推荐方案的建设规模、技术标准及主要工程数量，进行本项目的投资估算，估算总金额528.897万元，平均每公里造价为55.323万元。1.3.6.资金筹措本项目投资估算为528.897万元。资金筹措由以下两部分组成：a．争取上级有关部门的补助150万元。b．剩余由××镇自筹解决。1.3.7.工期安排本项目前期工作及建设工期安排详见表1-5。工期安排表表1-4阶段名称时间施工图设计2007年3月～2007年4月施工工期2007年5月～2007年12月1.3.8.经济评价经计算，当社会折现率为10%时，项目国民经济效益费用流量评价结果。经济内部收益率(EIRR)16.64%(大于10%社会折现率)。经济效益费用比（EBCR）1.393。经济投资回收期（EN）16.63年。在费用上浮20%,同时效益下降20%的不利情况下，项目的经济效益费用比(EBCR)为1.13，经济内部收益率(EIRR)13.36%(大于社会折现率10%),经济投资回收期(EN)19.67年（小于22年）。从国民经济评价结果来看,项目可行,并具有一定的抗风险能力。1.4主要问题与建议a.项目部分为老路改建，施工时应做好科学的施工组织安排，以保证施工时道路畅通；b．本工程实施的关健问题是资金筹措，资金若不能按时到位，将影响工程质量及延误施工工期，务请有关部门落实筹资计划，确保资金及时到位，有利于施工计划顺利进行；c．有关施工用水用电等具体情况，以及征地拆迁有待进一步详细了解收集；d．建议在工可批准后，按线位两侧用地加以控制；e．建议施工时严格控制噪音、粉尘等污染，同时做好环境保护工作，避免水土流失和自然景观破坏。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot2、项目区域交通现状分析2.1.××市综合运输网分析2.1.1.综合运输概况××市地处××中部偏西，自古以来可谓物华天宝，人杰地灵。境内有山有水有洞，有国家4A级旅游景点等一系列新的旅游景点。长期以来，由于受自然条件的制约，××市对外交通运输以铁路运输为主。近年来，随着国家对交通基础设施投资的力度加大，国道205、三郊线、省道204线和省道205线部分路段等先行工程的建设，极大的改善了××市公路运输体系，与沿海地区相比，还存在较大差距。福银高速的建成通车为××市的发展提供一条经济腾飞的主动脉。××市综合运输网包括公路、铁路和水路，无航空和管道运输。据统计资料，2005年，全市公路完成的客运量及货运量占较大的比例，分别占95%及64%,其次是铁路运输占5%及36%，相对我省的其它地区来说，其比重是较大的，这与××市是××重工业基地密切相关。2.1.2.铁路鹰厦铁路南北纵贯全区，区内设有19个车站，2005年铁路运输货物2233.58万吨，与上年略增，客运量为273.58万人次,比上年略有下降。这主要是公路的建设，改善行车条件，吸引了部分铁路客源，估计这种趋势还将持续。2003、2004、2005年铁路运输完成状况表2—1表2—1运量年份旅客运输（万人）货物运输（万吨）到发量发送量到发量发送量2003年255.9124.11649.3904.32004年262130.51596875.52005年273.58136.22233.581275.42.1.3.水运溪河水运是××市境内的传统运输方式，历史悠久。××××××××溪三大闽江水系的溪河总长为729公里，上游九龙江、琴江、汀江水系的溪河多条，构成××境内的水运网络。最长的※※，发源于××，流经××、※※、××市区、※※，全长322公里,于××××境内汇入闽江。×troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot×××源于××，全长171公里，于×××××汇入闽江。××××发源于※※，经××××××，全长236公里，于×××境内汇入×××××,注入闽江。建国以后由于××境内公路交通运输的逐年发展以及铁路的建设，特别是历年兴修水利、建筑堤坝、航道受阻，水路运输逐渐退缩地位。2.1.4.公路运输概况至2005年底全市公路建设方面，完成了二级以上公路新建、改造815公里，以及农村公路硬化和公路场站建设计划，投资达113.14亿元，超额完成了计划。其中：××高速公路2005年底全线动工建设；国、省道重要经济干线改造里程达597.1公里，完成投资6.83亿元；农村公路建设方面：2003年省政府提出实施年万里农村路网工程，全市掀起农村公路建设高潮，“十五”期间共完成公路路面硬化4300公里，投资达10.2亿元；公路场站枢纽项目“十五”期间完成××、××汽车站建设，及一批农村客运站、候车亭建设，投资达2070万元。公路统计历年完成情况资料见表2—2××市公路运输历年完成情况统计表2-2运输量年份货运量（万吨）货物周转量（亿吨.公里）客运量（万人）旅客周转量（亿人.公里）2001年204710.84459113.962002年281612.77366014.902003年2819.0412.83663.814.92004年367816.77471819.142005年393322.254850252.2.××县综合运输网分析2.2.1综合运输概况××县境内地势起伏，峰峦重叠，溪流密布，是我省西部典型的内陆山区县之一。××县交通以公路为主，无铁路和航空运输，少量的水路运输即以××至※※troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot客货运输及围埔至沙芜货运输为主。2.2.2水运××县水路运输以××至××××××少量货运为主，2005年，水路货运量为7.4万吨，客运量为67.5万人公里，水路运输量约占交通总量的2%。机动载客船1艘，各种农用船只63艘，渔船149艘。随着公路网通达深度的不断加深和公路等级的提高，水路运输还将继续减少。2.2.3公路运输概况××县公路主要由省道S204线和正在规划中的省道S307线及县道北×××等干线公路组成。这些路网公路，是××县公路交通主动脉，也是××县区通往××市以及沟通××××××××××的主要通道。随着改革开放的深入，公路网不断完善，××县公路运输已成为全县主要运输方式，据统计2003年公路运输占交通运输总量的98%，公路里程占交通运输总里程的87%。××县历年汽车拥有情况见表2—3，历年公路运输情况见表2—4。××县历年汽车拥有情况表2—3拥有量年份载客车（辆）载货车（辆）1997年664061998年653941999年694492000年724472001年555972002年786892003年219836××县公路运输历年完成情况表表2—4运输量年份货运量（万吨）货物周转量troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot（万吨.公里）客运量（万人）旅客周转量（万人.公里）1997年2031050913310891998年216.211917.8139.27424.41999年213129361467792.62000年2331497515286312001年1046488103.929132002年47078189110362003年131610768721222122.3.××县公路网现状及分析2.3.1.公路网现状××县现有省道88.72公里，县道124.39公里，乡村道路123.57公里，专用公路79.4公里，村道60.73公里，总里程为476.81公里。其中：二级公路62.07公里，三级公路57.98公里，四级公路251.96公里，其余104.8公里均为等外公路；全县现有高级、次高级路面里程151.35公里。2.3.1.1.省道a.富下线序号：S204线××县境内路段63.78公里。b.东石线序号:S307线东石线全长130.6836公里（××境内），××县境内全长57.1239公里，已建成二级路长8.5公里。2.3.1.2.县道a.×××线×××××途经××的××××，全长34.4公里。b.×××线××××××××途经×××，全长34.394公里。c.×××线××××××途经××××××，全长52.98公里。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenotd.×××线×××××××××终点：××。全长10.815公里。2.3.1.3.乡村公路全县共有乡村公路总长350.5公里2.3.1.4.专用公路a.林业公路（11条136.5公里）b.厂矿公路（9条77.25公里）2.3.2.现有公路技术状况分析××县现有公路通车总里程为720.4公里，但是公路等级极低，等外公路多。全县主要公路为省道S204和S307线，总长仅88.72公里，其公路等级以原技术标准的山岭重丘区二、三级公路为主。本项目现有公路路基宽度大多在2.5-3.5米之间，小部分路段路基宽度达到4.5米，大部分路段平面线型较好，路线纵坡起伏不大，为等外路，沙土路面。3、交通量预测3.1.××交通运输发展现状××地处中国东海之滨，东隔台湾海峡与台湾省相望，东北与浙江省比邻，西北横贯武夷山脉与江西省交界，西南与广东省相连。就海上而言，××是中国距离东南亚、西亚、东菲和大洋洲最近的省份之一。特殊的地理位置决定了福建过去、现在和将来都是中国通往世界各地的主要门户之一。目前已初步形成了以福州市为中心，以铁路为主骨架，以公路干线为主脉络，以中心场（站）为主枢纽，辅之以航空、水运、管道运输的多层次综合运输网络体系。全省交通固定资产投资连续四年超过100亿元，全年完成157亿元，占年度计划130亿元的121%，同比增长15.4％。高速公路建设投资完成73.8亿元，占年度计划的100％；三福高速公路、漳龙高速公路全线建成通车；新增高速公路316公里，全省高速公路通车里程突破1000公里；省会福州至各设区市都通高速公路，提前一年形成“四小时交通经济圈”；福州机场高速公路一期工程、龙长高速公路全线开工。普通公路建设投资完成68.1亿元，占年度计划的138％，同比增长43.4%。港口建设步伐加快，完成投资15.1亿元，占年度计划的216％，同比增长104％。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot全省公路、水路运输生产稳步增长，主要指标与去年同期相比均呈较快增长态势。2004年分别完成公路、水路客运量5.09亿人次和896.8万人次，同比增长11.9%和26.8%；分别完成公路、水路货运量2.6亿吨和7567万吨，同比增长8.8%和19.7%；分别完成公路、水路旅客周转量286.5亿人公里和1.32亿人公里，同比增长11.5%和18.9%；分别完成公路、水路货物周转量216.1亿吨公里和965亿吨公里，同比增长11.7%和15.6%。沿海港口完成货物吞吐量1.58亿吨，同比增长26.7%；完成集装箱吞吐量425万标箱，同比增长24.3%。截至2005年底，全省公路通车里程达58286公里，其中高级、次高级路面35580公里；高速公路1209公里，一级公路358公里，二级公路6262公里；公路密度48.01公里/百平方公里。全省共有生产性泊位509个，其中万吨级以上泊位66个，年通过能力1.22亿吨，其中集装箱吞吐能力513万标箱。公路、水路运输业在综合运输体系中占绝对优势，承担全省公、水、铁、空总客运量的95.9％，总货运量的89.9％，总旅客周转量的65.3％，总货物周转量的84.2％。2004年××各种运输方式完成的客货运输总量分别为53950万人、37279万吨，客货周转量分别为441亿人公里、1401亿吨公里，客货平均运距分别为82公里、376公里。在各种运输方式中，公路完成客货运输量分别为50862万人、25964万吨，分别占各种运输方式完成运输总量的94.27%，69.65%，公路运输是××交通运输的主要运输方式。铁路完成客货运量分别为1568万人、3739万吨，分别占综合总运量的2.9%、10.03%。各种运输方式完成的运量见表3-1、表3-2。××历年各种运输方式客运量表表3-1年份客运量（万人）旅客周转量（亿人公里）合计铁路公路水路民航合计铁路公路水路民航199039495123436639156755.49175.43812844.98199134038123531683104772.90186.74113637.081992362831332336681174108.68205.1749142310.61199340465155637970784155.20232.2762151415.54199436416168533916600214.60240.5668149221.06199540080166237508649261.50247.6567153224.82199642956146640474714301.2267.259177228.98199743658140141212729316.10253.1560160230.55199842047139939618728301.96279.7661187229.55troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot199941413148038884721327.85301.5866201132.62200044203142841696726353.25333.9772223137.52200147393137244926680414.56372.7274254143.31200249134144646570643475.5139277265149.47200348098141745483707490.61386.1975258152.68200453950156850862897623.24441.485287168.216××历年各种运输方式货运量表表3-2年份货运量（万吨）货物周转量（亿吨公里）合计铁路公路水路民航合计铁路公路水路民航19902032119021671017080.8327310491780.081991121241988892412111.0626711374800.1119921983620641583219381.54347126931280.1719932582422162127623302.27434136112860.2419942844723012314729962.795781401353020.2619952892224562344430174.716091461453170.5019963059325002473233555.825911411443050.6619973049623732456235555.816061431393230.6919983001023252397937006.496621421513680.7419992863723892216240797.207471441854160.7820002948324752292440785.846881531763590.6720013054728132319245356.307801451874270.7220023183728562402349507.628271701944630.8620033342232062388463247.8412241941948350.9120043727937392596475678.7814012192169651.073.2项目所在区域社会经济特征××市××市地处××西北部，与江西及本省的××、×××、※※troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot、龙岩为界，全区土地总面积2.294万平方公里，占全省的18.89%，其中山林面积1.86万平方公里、耕地面积0.19万平方公里。××市辖九县一市二区，1998年末全年总人口264.97万人，其中非农业人口63.46万人，占全市人口的23.95%，××市有较丰富的农业、林业、矿业、水利等资源，是××的重工业基地。国民经济保持适度快速增长，年平均增长率为8～10%，粮食产量年年增产，林业生产稳步发展，工业总产值稳定增加，固定资产投资、交通、邮电、国内贸易、金融、保险发展迅速。××县××县位于××武夷山脉中段东南侧，九龙溪上游。北纬25°48′～26°21′，东经116°38′～117°10′之间。东与※※市毗连，南与连城县交界，西与长汀相接，西北与※※县相邻，东北与※※县接壤。全境南北长65.2公里，东西宽53.8公里，总面积1825平方公里。××，是镶嵌在闽西大地的一颗璀璨明珠。早在一万多年前的旧石器时代，人类便在此活动。考古学家在×××××发现了福建最早的古人类化石。“依傍青山一水绕，××××半岛巧自成”的××，是一个农业县，以种植水稻为主，所产大米质地优良，明清时代曾作为“贡米”。同时，××还是一个水的泽国，是××的水利建设先进县，全县装机容量达1.84万千瓦。另外××县森林资源丰富，森林覆盖率达69.1%，是××的重点林业县之一，有珍稀野生动植物31种，鸟类29种，药用植物671种。盛产水果、烟叶、茶籽油、山苍籽、茶叶、水酒等。蕴藏着丰富的自然资源，境内已探明的矿藏有20余种，其中煤、锰、石灰石、稀土等尤其丰富。××境内还有丰富的旅游资源，其中有著名的毛泽东在林畲的故居、红军战斗遗址、狐狸洞、圆通寺、七星岩等，还有著名的温泉度假村。××县的综合经济实力，近年来有了较大的提高。2005年全县完成国内生产总值13.8027亿元，比上年增长14.2%；财政收入6082万元，比上年增长9.4%。2005年完成工农业总产值8.5623亿元，比上年增长25%，其中工业总产值2.3062亿元，比上年增长25%，农业总产值5.529亿元，比上年增长5.3%。产业结构得到进一步的调整，2005年人均国内生产总值10293元，比上年增长14.5%，人民生活有了较大改善。3.3项目影响区社会经济发展目标规划期内，××县将根据自身的有利条件和面临新的发展机遇，加强山海协作，围绕××市“建设连结沿海与内地繁荣带”战略，强化县城中心城市功能，加快乡镇经济发展，开发××河（××troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot）经济带，拓展新的发展空间，坚持以农业为基础，培育壮大电力、电子、林产、矿产、旅游五大支柱产业，发展区域特色经济。提高人民生活水平，形成比较完善的社会主义市场经济体制，把××建设成为一个经济繁荣、文明开放的现代化强县。--“十一五”国内生产总值年均递增8%以上。--“十一五”期间产业结构调整为39∶26∶35。--“十一五”期间财政收入与国内生产总值同步增长。--“十一五”期间全社会固定资产投资年均增长8%以上。--“十一五”期间累计利用外资320万美元，外贸出口年均增长10%。--“十一五”期间科技进步对经济增长的贡献率每年提高2%，2005年达到50%以上。--“十一五”期间城市大气环境质量达到国家一级标准，地表水水质保持国家二类标准。--“十一五”期间人口自然增长率控制在10‰以内，总人口控制在15.4万人以内。--“十一五”期间城镇居民人均可支配收入和农民人均纯收入年均增长5%以上。--“十一五”期间城镇登记失业率年控制在4%以内。3.4项目主要影响区的公路运输状况3.4.1××市到2005年末，××市公路总里程为12370.93公里，其中高级、次高级路面有6261.41公里，占总里程的50.61%，公路等级偏低，网络化水平不高。××市目前综合运输主要是公路和铁路，水运极少，没有航空、管道运输。公路运输比重大，是其主要运输方式。2005年客运量为5146.924万人，其中铁路273.584万人，公路4850万人，水路23.34万人；客运周转量250589.19万人公里，其中公路249860万人公里，水路729.19万人公里；货运量5170万吨，其中铁路1159.5493万吨，公路3933万吨，水路77.46万吨；货运周转量225751.56万吨公里，其中公路222528.2万吨公里，水运3223.36万吨公里。在以上四个指标中，公路约占全市客运总量的94%，总货运量的76%，客运周转量的99.70%，货运周转量的98%。公路现状的落后与在国民经济中所承担的重要角色极不相符，公路已成为××市经济发展的“瓶颈”。××市汽车拥有量及公路运输量发展变化详见表3-3。从表3-3中还可以看出，公路客、货运发展不稳定，部分指标的平均增长率出现负增长，这主要是由于基础工业薄弱，产品结构与市场需求矛盾，近几年工业企业不景气等原因造成的，以及个体运输的大量涌现，统计难度所致。××市汽车拥有量和公路运输量发展变化表表3-3年份载客汽车troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot（辆）载货汽车(辆)货物周转量（亿吨.公里）旅客周转量（亿人.公里）客运量（万人）货运量（万吨）199561421452216.117411.77543692225219966217999415.778314.05114189208319977130998110.630114.52383825218219987323990310.562718.337143812025199974931045710.433412.51673841207320006998875010.561310.1903564438320011842580510.845313.963345912047200293351166812.771814.9025366028162003112451197712.814.93663.82819.042004137941247416.7719.14471836782005172021391922.2525485039331995-20002.64%-8.09%-6.8%-2.3%-0.58%11.74%2001-200519.7%19.11%15.45%19.66%1.1%13.95%1995-200510.84%-0.38%2.97%7.08%2.5%5.2%注：表中资料来源于《××市统计年鉴》。3.4.2××县××县的交通主要靠公路，境内没有铁路，水路少量。公路：县内公路网络四通八达，省道S204、S307贯穿全县，※※(永宁)高速公路基本与省道S307线并行贯穿全县。全县公路907公里，其中：省道88.72公里，县道132.589公里，乡道123.87公里,专用公路79.4公路，村道60.73公里，其它简易道路430.19公里。××县现有省道88.72公里，县道124.39公里。水路：××河贯通××县境，共有内河航运里程105公里，其中能通行机动船的12.5公里，水深1米以上的92.5公里。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot目前综合运输方式主要依赖公路运输。随着经济的发展，公路基础设施建设投入有所加强，运输条件初步改善，公路运输业有较大的发展，各种车辆逐年增多，公路运输在综合运输中占有重要地位，并发挥着越来越明显的作用。公路客运以中短途为主，并逐步向长途发展。随着改革开放，政策放宽，乡镇运输企业和个体运输业车辆激增，车辆发展社会化，大大活跃运输市场，公路运输市场呈多家经营的激烈竞争局面。在未来的综合运输中，公路运输依然是主要的运输方式，并处于主导地位，仍然以中短途客货运输为主。公路作为一门具有便捷、灵活、快速、门到门服务特点的运输方式，在××县的国民经济中发挥着重要的作用。1992-2002年公路运输客运量从1992年的61.22万人次发展到2002年的91万人次，年平均增长4.4%，客运周转量从1992年的992万人公里发展到2002年的1036万人公里，年平均增长0.41%，货运量从1992年的154.9万吨发展到2002年的470万吨，年平均增长18.49%，货物周转量从1992年的6137万吨公里发展到2002年的7818万吨公里，年平均增长2.49%，从统计资料来看，客、货运的周转量增长速度远低于客、货量的增长速度，这充分反映了主要是以短途运输为主。同时还由于个体运输的大量涌现，客、货运量统计困难所致。本项目所影响的×××××××××××××××××××××××××××。由于该路段等级低，路面为沙土路面，严重影响了移民的生活及社会经济发展。3.5项目影响区交通运输规划3.5.1××市交通运输规划××市市委、市政府为了加快阻碍经济发展的落后的交通基础设施建设，加快脱贫致富的步伐，促进资源的合理流动和生产力的合理布局，增强经济发展后劲，在“十一五”规划中提出：加快构建以快速铁路、高速公路和国省道为主通道，支线机场、内河航运和农村公路为补充的适度超前、功能配套、高效便捷现代化交通基础设施支撑体系，逐步形成东出西进、南联北接的海峡西1、铁路。按照构筑快速通道、完善区域路网、改造既有线路的思路，加快向莆快速铁路通道的建设，推进鹰厦铁路的整合改造提升，构造新的对接沿海、延伸内陆的铁路交通大动脉。开展*******铁路项目前期工作，强化与国家干线铁路的联系。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot2、高速公路和干线公路网。以加快建成高速公路通道、提高公路等级、完善公路网络、扩大通达覆盖面、增强普遍服务为重点，积极推进“一纵二横三联”高速公路主骨架建设，配套建设高速公路支线和连接线，打通出省、出海通道，实现与沿海和周边省份高速公路的对接，基本达到“经济繁荣带”半小时、其余各县一小时内通达高速公路的目标。重点建设※※至××高速公路××段、长深高速公路※※段、※※高速公路××段（二期工程）等项目；开展邵武延伸到※※至广昌、※※至漳州、※※至厦门等高速公路的前期工作，适时开工建设。普通公路要加快“三横四纵”省级干线公路的建设改造，逐步完善干线公路网。重点建设※※谢坊至燕子塘（长汀交界）、尤溪西城至街面、※※城关经泰宁至邵武交界等主要公路。改革农村公路管理和养护体制，继续实施农村公路路网工程和农村客运市场建设。“十一五”期间完成乡镇通达行政村四级公路路面硬化改造2800公里、新建和改建国省道干线公路340公里。到2010年，全市95%以上的行政村确保有一条硬化公路通往乡（镇）或干线公路，高速公路通车里程达400公里以上，基本形成高速公路、省级干线公路、农村公路、枢纽站场配套完善的公路网络体系。3、航空和航运。加快建设××机场，开辟国内航线，发展快速安全的航空运输。配合沿海港口建设，完善※※经闽江至福州的航道，力争开通内河航运，使其成为山海联系的重要交通、物流通道，拓宽港口服务半径。3.5.2××县交通运输规划××县在“十一五”规划中提出：××作为××内陆山区，紧紧围绕福建实施“东出西进”的交通发展战略及融入海峡西岸经济区建设，充分发挥着山区的作用,进一步加强实施山海协作,形成海峡西岸经济区县域经济城市,并以“闽人之源、著名中央苏区”,争创提高××的知名度和经济的外向度。到2010年，公路交通有效供给总量明显增加，结构明显合理，质量明显提高，基本形成以※※高速公路、永瑞铁路为主的交通骨架网，实现与长三角、珠三角两大全国最活跃的经济区对接，并辐射二条省道，以省道为依托，下启农村公路网，以形成合理、有效、便捷的××公路交通网络；并与省交通厅提出的省内“4小时交通经济圈”及县级行政中心“1小时上高速公路”troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot的发展方向积极相应,基本实现行政村通达公路路面硬化；建立能力强、组织协调、运行高效、服务优质、安全环保的公路水路运输新型的物流业和农村客运网络系统，并与其他运输方式共同构筑布局合理、协调、互补的现代交通运输体系，形成公路、水路、铁路多种交通服务方式全面协调发展，为海峡西岸建设奠定坚实的交通基础，为社会提供安全、经济、便捷、可靠的交通运输服务，共同促进××县域经济城市及乡村经济发展的和谐交通。根据省、市交通主管部门的有关文件精神,紧密结合××县现状及发展,制定“十一五”交通建设发展规划主要目标:公路：※※高速※※至※※公路××段,是国家规划中的“7918”重点干线公路的横线部分“※※至广西南宁”××路段；该公路××路段路线估测全长约45.7公里,走向主要控制点：×××××××××××××总投资估算约19亿元。目前该项目正在协助省、市交通主管部门进行※※至※※高速公路的预可编制和上报工作,力争规划在2008年前开工建设。以提高公路等级、改善路面状况为重点，坚持建设与养护并重，改造S307线，达到二级路标准。通过“十一五”期间的农村公路建设以后，拟在“十一五”期间建设农村公路165公里，并在2010年全部建成实现所有行政村的公路通上水泥及沥青路面。铁路：※※-瑞金铁路长汀至※※路段地处××西北部，为东西走向，东起鹰夏铁路的※※车站，西至正在建设的×××××××铁路的长汀车站，途径××长汀县、※※县、××县和※※市四个县（市），全长约164.08公里，其中新建132.8公里，利用××××支线改建31.28公里，拟建设等级为国铁Ⅰ级、单线、内燃机牵引，项目总投资估算25.2亿元。该线路正选方案中××境内走向拟定方案：从里田入××境内，经××城关、×××××××××××右岸顺流而下至※※，路线估测全长约50公里，项目投资估算8.5亿元。※※-瑞金铁路长永路段于2002年10月由××市委托※※市启动项目前期工作并成立筹建处；目前该项目已完成预可行性研究报告的编制,正积极争取列入国家发改委及铁道部路网规划,拟规划在2007年开工建设，2010年完工。水路：结合旅游开发整治城关至××至××航道17.5公里，新建和改造城关、××××××等码头。3.6交通量预测3.6.1交通量预测的内容和方法交通量预测是公路建设项目可行性研究工作的重要环节之一，它是确定项目的建设标准、规模的依据，也是经济工作评价的基础。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot本项目为库区移民项目，它的建成将大大改善库区移民的公路交通运输条件，加强项目影响区内各村、镇之间的联系，它的修建对于加移民村镇与周边地区的联系，扩大移民村镇的经济活动范围有着重要的作用。本项目为旧路改建工程，通道内自然增长的趋势型交通量和诱增交通量将形成本项目的趋势型交通量。本项目平行方向上无铁路、水道，不存在其它运输方式向本项目转移的问题。根据以上分析，本项目的远景交通量将由项目自然增长的趋势型交通量和诱增交通量组成。根据交通部《水运、公路建设项目可行性研究编制办法》，四级公路交通量预测年限为公路建成后10年。本项目2007年开工，2007年底建成通车。预测特征年定为2007年、2010年、2015年、2017年。交通量预测基年为2006年。3.6.2交通量分析3.6.2.1交通量现状分析根据当地交通部门提供的资料显示，该公路的交通发生源较为简单，基本为移民村与××县城及临村间的交通。本项目以×××××作为未来10年交通量分析资料，2007年1月28日实际观测的交通量观测值加权平均折合小客车为552辆作为基年交通量。3.6.2.2趋势交通量根据规划，该项目将于2007年12月份建成。根据××县未来国民经济发展规划速度及2006年国内生产总值增长8%，综合考虑交通发展与社会经济发展的因素，预计2006～2007年本项目公路交通量增长率约为5.4%，2007～2010年为4.8%，2010～2015年为4.5%，2015～2017年为4.3%，（上述资料来源于××县城镇体系规划），依据以往的经验,项目刚建成前几年交通量增长速度比平均增长速度要快约1%,由此推算出本项目正常趋势交通量。交通量预测结果表单位：辆/日（小客车）年份20072008201020152017交通量增长率5.4％4.8%4.8%4.5%4.3%趋势交通量5826106708359083.6.2.3诱增交通量troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot国内外的经验均已证实，交通条件改善后，将改变该区域的投资环境，诱发该区域经济的增长和交通量的增加。诱增交通量主要包含如下三个方面：一是项目建设改变了区域的经济可接近性，市场范围发生变化引起交通流向变化而产生的交通流量；二是项目建成可能引起区域结构、产业布局、投资环境的变化而产生的交通量；三是项目建成改善了区域交通条件，诱发了潜在的交通量。参照以往经验，诱发交通量约为趋势型交通量的10％左右。随着交通量的增大，诱增量逐年降低。据此原则对项目诱增交通量进行预测，2008-2010年为10％，2010-2015年为8％，2015-2017年为6％。诱增交通量预测值见表交通量预测结果表单位：辆/日（小客车）年份20072008201020152017交通量增长率10％8％6％诱增交通量61741091223.6.2.4最终交通量本项目建成后，预测总交通量=趋势型交通量+诱增交通量交通量汇总表单位：辆/日（小客车）年份2008201020152017趋势交通量610670835908诱增交通量6174109122最终交通量67174494410304、建设规模与标准4.1.建设规模根据本路段的交通量预测结果确定按四级公路标准修建。设计行车速度为20公里/小时，路基宽6.5米，路面宽度6.0米，路面结构根据交通量发展的需要，采用水泥砼路面，设计基准期为10年，选定路线等级以满足未来10年交通量发展要求。推荐方案路线长度为9.56公里。设计荷载为公路-Ⅱ级。4.2.工程技术标准本项目采用交通部发布的《公路工程技术标准》JTGB01-2003中的V=20公里/小时四级公路标准。主要技术指标采用情况见表4—1。主要技术指标表表4—1指标名称指标备注公路等级四级troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot设计行车速度（公里/小时）20路基宽度（米）6.5小桥涵与路基同宽路面宽度（米）6.0一般最小平曲线半径（米）30极限最小平曲线半径（米）15停车视距（米）40最大纵坡（%）9路基设计洪水频率1/25小桥涵设计洪水频率1/25桥涵设计荷载公路—Ⅱ级5、备选方案拟定及工程概况5.1沿线自然条件及其对工程的影响5.1.1地理位置××县位于××西北部，位于东经116°38′～117°10′，北纬25°46′～25°22′之间。5.1.2地形、地貌××县地势从南北九龙溪河谷倾斜，大部分为中低山地，呈西北高（400～800米），中部低（300～600米），东南部（800～1700米）态势，地形切割深度可达300～800米，最大处可达1000米。千米以上高峰为××山1705.7米，最低处为××乡，海拔250米。由于新构造运动的抬升和溪水强烈侵蚀切割，形成境内低山丘陵广布，盆地零星并以低山为主的丘陵山地地貌，同时，县境内地形的横向变化具有明显的分带性，北部×××一带，以低山，丘陵为主，地势自西向东呈阶梯壮抬高；南部××××一带，多分布中山和低山，丘陵和盆地，呈相同排列。5.1.2.气象、水文本项目地处××县境内，全县属中亚热带季风气候区，四季明显，气候温和，寒暖适宜。具有水热资源地区间差异大和小区立体型明显的气候特点，季风显著，气候类型多样。年平均气温17.9℃，最冷为1月，月平均气温5.6℃，极端最低气温为-9.9℃，最热为7月，月平均气温24.9℃，极端最高气温为38.5℃；≥10℃troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot的积温在5015～5157之间；多年平均降雨量1738毫米，雨量集中在3～7月份，占全年降雨量的70～73%；全年无霜期253～280天。全县年平均降水量为1771.3毫米。4～6月是雨季，降雨量为818.8～875.1毫米，5～6月雨量最多达615.2～660毫米，为全年雨量37.3%全县全年雨日125～170天。5～6月，雨日最多，11～12月最少，5～6月出现暴雨机率最高，占全年暴雨日51～59%；其次是7～9月的台风雷雨季节，占全年暴雨日的18～21%，100毫米的雨日也集中在5～6月，尤其以6月的雨季高峰期为显著，2～3年出现一次。全县年均相对湿度为79%。一年中2月的相对湿度最大，达84%；7月份相对湿度最小，为77%。常年平均日照时数为1687小时，日照百分率为38%，最多年份日照时数2077小时，日照百分率为47%，最少年份日照数为1357小时，日照百分率31%，一年中，以2月日照时数最少，只75小时，占全年的4.7%，7月最多，为238.3小时，占全年的14.1%。××县属※※水系，境内主要河流有三条，年均径流量17.4亿立方米。地下水天然径流量为34668.78万吨。年平均日径流量为18.99/万吨。年日径流量为520.45吨。丰水年径流量为4.927亿立方米；平水年径流量为3.355亿立方米；偏枯年径流量为2.147亿立方米。境内有六处温泉。九龙溪是境内的最大河流，自西北向东南斜贯全境，全长53公里，县内流域面积476平方公里。5.1.3.地质、地震××县境，地层发育齐全，从古代至第四纪均有其代表，出露面积达1163.8平方公里，占全县总面积的五分之三强，地层展布基本上受北东向构造线控制，东南部沙芜塘—李家一线主要出露晚古生代沉积地层；西北部与※※县交界处主要出露震旦纪—寒武纪变质岩地层。a.地层县境地层基本上可划分三大构造层次：加里东构造层，华力西——印支构造层，燕山期构造层，各构造层之间均存在明显的区域性构造不整合。b．岩浆岩县内岩浆岩发育，岩性以酸性岩为主，呈岩基、岩株体沿构造隆起带或断裂带侵入。区内岩浆活动具有多期次特征，有加里东期、华力西——印支期、燕山早晚期。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot5.1.3.1侵入岩①．加里东期主要分布于北坑及横溪岭之南，多呈小岩瘤状产出，规模不大，呈北东方向展布，为灰白、浅肉红色二云母花岗岩、细粒花岗岩结构。②．华力西——印支期主要是沿纬埔背斜轴部侵入的大岩体，呈北东向45°延展，与××芹溪岩体及连城四堡岩体连成一片，构成一个巨大的岩基。按岩性特征划分，代表二叠纪侵入活动的有：深度单元分布于廖武坪一带。翁坊单元分布于翁坊一带为片麻状巨斑状中粗粒黑云母花岗岩。③．燕山早期侵入岩燕山早期主要是中粗粒似斑状黑云母花岗岩，分布于东南洋坑一带，是连城姑田岩体的一部分。5.1.3.2地质构造××县构造单元属于闽西南华力西——印支坳陷带的一部分，蒲城——武平大断裂自北东——南西方向贯穿全境；古生代地层沿断裂带呈长的槽地分部；印支、燕山期花岗岩体均顺断裂带侵入，亦成南西——北东方向展布。5.1.3.3地震根据《中国地震烈度区划图》（G1318306），项目所在区地震动峰加速系数为0.05。根据《公路工程抗震设计规范》（JTJ004—89）的规定，结构仅采用构造措施进行设防。5.1.4岩土体工程地质类型及特征a.岩体类型及特征项目所在区域内岩体主要由浅海相碎屑岩组成，岩性为灰绿色变质细沙岩、粉砂岩与千枚岩，板岩岩，夹硅质岩薄层，偶见墨点状黄铁矿。南部地区由黑母斜长变粒岩和片麻岩组成，岩性暗灰色、黑灰色的条带状片麻岩，岩丘状片麻岩及变粒岩等。b.土体类型及特征××县境内成土母岩为砂砾岩、泥质岩、酸性岩等。成土母质主要有残积、坡积、洪积、冲积物。基表土层的颜色成灰棕色，结构为快状及棱快状，可见黄白红杂相间的网纹层。5.2筑路材料及运输条件troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot本项目属旧路改建和新建工程，沿线已有多处正在开采的小型石料场，新建公路的路基开挖也有石料，经调查，其储藏量满足公路建设的需要，沿线筑路材料较为丰富，采运方便。具体如下：a.石料：项目所在区域石料资源丰富，主要产地在××镇等地，以花岗岩和灰岩为主，规格齐全，可满足工程需要。b.碎石：项目所在沿线有碎石加工场，级配良好，以花岗岩、灰岩为主，可选用。c.砂：砂主要取自沿线河流，储量大，质地好，为中粗砂，级配良好。d.石灰：从××石灰厂购买。e.水、电：项目所在区域内水电资源丰富。沿线水质无污染，可满足工程需求。f.水泥：项目所在区域内盛产水泥，主要有※※水泥厂。g.取、弃土：沿线第四纪残积坡土分布广泛，以粘砂性土为主，土质满足路基填筑的需要，可结合工程需要就近选用取土场。5.3社会环境分析××县地处山区，原有的公路等级较低，已不能满足交通运输的需求，经济发展缓慢。本项目建成后必将对移民村镇产生极大的效益，同时带动沿线的村镇经济发展。本项目位于××县××镇境内，当地人民群众对尽早安排本项目的实施积极性和迫切性很高，并表示将全力以赴做好前期准备工作。5.4拟建公路与其它各种运输方式衔接情况本项目起点为××××镇桥下村的白石桥，经开××××××，终点为×××××。本项目起点经※※锻连接××县城，经××县城往南可通往※※、××、※※、福州、※※、厦门等地，往西可通往××、广东，往北可通往※※、※※、江西等地，终点龙头甲经※※的杨家锻通往※※的旅游胜地※※等地。5.5建设项目工程环境影响公路建设所产生的环境影响，可分为施工阶段的影响和营运通车后的影响，在施工阶段，以影响物化环境和地文环境居多，营运通车后，则对社会环境和经济环境影响较大。5.5.1对物化环境的影响1、空气污染：项目建成通车后，平均昼夜交通量由2007年的582辆（小客车，下同）增加到2017年的1030辆，汽车排放尾气中含有铅、CO、NOX等有害物质，污染空气，对人体会产生一定的伤害。沿线土质多为粘土，在施工和营运期间，晴天汽车行驶易产生扬尘污染空气。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot2、水土污染：在施工期，沙石材料冲洗、混凝土搅拌等排放的生产废水和施工队伍的生活污水，分散排入沿线施工场地周围，对附近灌溉水源造成污染；弃方及垃圾也会造成土地污染。在营运期，汽车尾气中的有害物质及修车洗车油污沉降于公路表面，随雨水被带入附近农田、水渠，会造成水土污染。3、噪音：路线经过××镇××××××××××××。在施工期施工机械及爆破产生的噪音以及在营运期汽车行驶产生的噪音，都会对沿线居民的生活和身体产生不利的影响。5.5.2.对地文环境的影响本项目所在区域为山岭重丘区和微丘区，路基填挖必将破坏地形和山体植被，造成边坡失稳，影响周围环境的整体性。同时，公路的建设势必会影响地表水的流向，边坡开挖也会对地下水的导出和流向产生影响。5.5.3.对社会环境和经济环境的影响项目建成后对沿线的社会经济发展、居民生活水平的提高及人口素质的提高将起到积极的推动作用，并有助于提高居民就业机会，促进物质和文化交流。5.5.4.减缓工程环境影响的对策加强施工期间工程管理对环境的影响，同时也要对营运期间沿线洗车场和饭馆卫生对环境的影响的管理。5.5.4.1.优化路线方案在路线走向和方案选择时，本着充分利用地形、路线便捷、平纵结合的基本原则，力争把项目建设对沿线自然环境和社会环境的不利影响降至最低。对沿线房屋、电力电讯和管线、水利设施的侵占，以少拆迁和少占良田为原则，能不占的尽量不占；对山坡和植被的破坏，以少挖低填为原则，尽量避免大填大挖；重视路基路面排水系统的设计，避免明显改变地表水和地下水的流向；路基和桥涵的设置要尽量避免挤压和改变河道。5.5.4.2.水土保持由于本段路线地处山区，借方量和弃方量较大，合理的取土和弃土有助于保持周围景观，避免水土流失。取土时，应尽量移挖作填，就近集中取土，利用荒地取土；取土后要平整场地。弃土时，应遵循堆放原则，不得任意倾倒；要及时采取防、排水措施；沿河弃土应尽量不挤压河道，以免堵塞，影响环境；弃土还应与当地农田和自然环境相结合，尽量利用弃土造田。5.5.4.3.公路绿化通过植树、撒草籽、铺草皮等绿化措施，既可恢复路基开挖对环境的破坏，又可美化景观，改善和优化生态环境，降低噪音，防止水土流失。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot5.5.4.4.其他措施1、加强施工管理，降低因施工引起的噪音、空气和生态污染；2、加强营运期管理，减少公路营运对周围环境的污染；3、建立环境保护责任制度，加大监督和管理的力度。5.6.路线方案比选5.6.1.选线原则本项目为移民村镇与外界的唯一重要通道,主要依据以下原则:a.满足交通功能,保证车辆畅通、安全和舒适；b.尽量利用老路减少拆迁，降低工程造价；c.注意路线与周边环境的协调。5.6.2.选线过程依据移民村镇的地理位置及有关部门的要求，先在1：1万军用地形图上对各种可能方案进行详细论证比选，然后各项目组根据在地形图上确定路线方案进行实地踏勘、调查及必要的控制测量，征求有关部门对路线方案的意见，最后在1：1万军用地形图上进行优化调整，经经济比较和论证后，最终确定本项目的路线方案。5.6.3.路线主要控制点的确定通过对项目区域现状及规划的分析、论证、研究，选择并确定对路线布设影响较大的点作为路线的控制点。本项目主要控制点有：×××××××××××××××。5.7.路线方案比较本项目为移民村镇与外界的连接通道，原为等外路，路线里程较短，方案明确简单，移民村镇均在路线两侧，为了方便村民，同时尽量降低工程造价，因此没有可比选的方案可供选择。6、推荐方案工程概况6.1.路线走向经过图上选线和现场踏勘，确定本项目的推荐方案。本项目推荐方案起点起点为××××镇桥××××××××××××××甲。本项目尽量利用老路布设，进行裁弯取直，提高路线标准，充分利用原有路基及桥涵，以降低工程造价。6.2.路基6.2.1.路基宽度根据××县××镇的委托，本项目路基宽度为6.5米，两侧路肩各为0.25米troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot。路基标准横断面见图。6.2.2.排水及防护排水：挖方路肩两侧设置石砌边沟，深挖路段视地质情况设置截水沟，填方路基视地形需要设置排水沟，结合沿线桥涵，形成功能完善的综合排水系统。防护：全线挖方边坡视边坡高度及地质情况，分别采用植草皮、砌石等防护措施；填方地段采用石砌护肩、挡土墙、护脚等防护措施，填方边坡采用植草皮防护。6.3.路面6.3.1.设计依据路面设计依据《公路水泥混凝土路面设计规范》JTGD40-2002规定进行设计。水泥混凝土路面设计年限为20年，路面交通量按轻交通量进行分析，折算成路面设计轴载为BZZ-100。6.3.2.路面宽度本项目路面宽度按6.0米设计。6.3.3.路面结构行车道路面型式为水泥混凝土，水泥混凝土面层为18，基层为15厘米5%水泥稳定碎石层，垫层为砂砾垫层15～20厘米。路面设计详见图。6.4.桥涵6.4.1涵洞全线共有小桥1座30米，涵洞30道240米。6.4.3.隧道全线无隧道。6.5.平面交叉全线无平面交叉。6.6.沿线设施本工程主要考虑设置标志牌、警告牌等控制系统。6.7.用地拆迁全线共征用农田13.5亩。推荐方案主要工程数量见表6—1主要工程数量表表6—1troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot项目工程名称单位数量一路线长度公里9.56二路基土石方工程立方米182641土方立方米146092石方立方米3655三填方立方米10291四路面工程公里9.561路面垫层（15cm）平方米6454025％水泥稳定基层（15cm）平方米549803砼面层（18cm）平方米50200五桥涵工程米/道240/301涵洞米/道240/302小桥米/座30/1七排水防护工程立方米8007、投资估算及资金筹措7.1.投资估算7.1.1.编制依据a.交通部交公路发（1996）611号发布的《公路基本建设工程投资估算编制办法》、《公路工程估算指标》；b.交通部（1996）交公路发612号发布的《公路基本建设工程概算、预算编制办法》；c．交通部交公路发（1996）610号发布的《公路工程机械台班费用定额》；d.本报告各方案的估算工程量。7.1.2.建设费用组成及投资估算说明7.1.2.1.建设费用组成见下表人工费直接费——材料费建筑安装其他工程费机械使用费工程费其他直接费、现场经费与间接费综合费用troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot综合利税费设备、工具、器具购置费征用土地费拆迁赔偿费建设单位管理费研究实验费估算总金额工程建设勘测设计费其他费用供电贴费大型专用机械设备购置费固定资产投资方向调节税建设期贷款利息工程造价增涨预留费预留费用预备费图7—17.1.2.2.投资估算说明（1）人工费和材料费a.人工费：按省交通厅闽交基［1996］261号文件的补充规定，人工费采用17.10元/工日。b.材料费：外购材料以市场调查价格为依据，按××交通工程定额站2007年第一季度发布的（总第54期）××交通工程各市主要材料市场指导价控制，加计运杂费组成材料单价。地方材料包括沙、石料及其它材料单价以料场调查价为原价，加各料场按料比例，综合运距计取的运杂费组成。（2）其它直接费、现场经费及间接费a.本工程施工按三施工企业考虑。b.本报告各项费率按补充规定费率计算；—其它直接费除“行车干挠施工增加费”按编制办费率计算外，其余各项费率按编制办规定费率的75％。—现场贴率除“主副食运费补贴”、“工地转移费”troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot按编制办规定费率计算外，其余各项费率按编制办规定费率的75％；其中主副食运杂费补贴费补贴综合里程取2.0公里，工地转移里程按50公里。—间接费率按编制办规定费率的75％计算。（3）其它工程费：按编制办规定计算。（4）工程建设其它费：本报告按交通部交公路发（1996）611号《公路工程估算指标》附录一规定值计算。其中：a.土地征用、房屋拆迁补偿单价：按××县交通局提供的标准计列,该标准含所有税费；b.建设单位管理费：按“编办”规定以国内招标取费；c.研究实验费不计；d.勘察设计费：按国家发展计划委员会、建设部颁布的《工程勘察设计收费标准》（2002年修订本）计列；e.施工机构转移费、大型专用施工设备购置费、固定资产投资方向调节税不计；f.建设期贷款利息：不计；g.供电贴费：按××电力工业局闽（1993）285号“关于印发××电力工业局贯彻国家计委《关于110千伏以下供电工程收取贴费的暂行规定》的实施细则的通知计列供电贴费”。（5）预留费a.物价上涨预留费不计；b.预留费以直接费与间接费之和的9%计列；7.1.3.投资估算结果本项目路线全长9.56公里，根据主要工程数量与投资估算编制依据，项目投资总估算为总金额528.897万元，平均每公里造价为55.323万元。7.2.资金筹措本项目资金是否能按时到位是本项目建设的关键。所以应充分发挥各有关部门对项目的投资积极性。经与甲方协商而确定资金筹措方案由以下二部分组成：a．争取上级部门补助150万元；b．不足部分由××镇自筹378.897万元。8、实施方案8.1.施工条件与特点本项目地处闽西山区，路线沿线主要跨越的地貌单元为高山丘陵、盆地、谷地。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot从气候方面看，项目区域属中亚热带海洋性气候，4～6月为梅雨季节，雨量多，强度大，但对本项目的施工工期没有影响。从运输条件看，项目区域路网较发达，沿线料场较丰富，故采材料及外购材料运输较方便，运距短，对工程建设有利。沿线河网密布，水质较好，能满足工程用水要求。工程用电也可与沿线电网就近连接使用。另外,本项目沿线多处穿过乡村，人员繁杂，施工时产生的噪音，粉尘等环境污染，将影响周围居民日常生活。从环保方面来考虑，施工时应控制噪音及粉尘的污染，确保居民正常生活、生产。根据上述条件与特点，建设方在选择施工队伍时应全面考核其施工队伍的素质，加强现场管理，施工队伍应认真做好施工组织安排，以确保本工程的质量和工期。8.2.勘测设计时间安排本项目按一阶段设计,具体勘测时间见表8—1.勘测设计时间表表8—1路段名称长度（公里）施工图设计白石桥至暖水9.562007年3月～4月8.3.工期安排本项目没有大中桥隧道，施工工艺比较简单，初拟建设工期按八个月计算，施工计划初步安排见表8—2。项目实施表表8—2项目名称梓才至沧龙村备注起讫桩号0+000～9+560里程（公里）9.56施工工期2007年5月～2007年12月共8个月施工工期安排表表8—3序号工程名称2007567891011121前期工作troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot2路基工程3路面工程4桥涵工程5沿线设施8.4.施工方案本项目路线、施工工期短,建设期内为按期、保质、保量地完成施工任务，并节省工程造价，必须合理选择施工单位，坚持招标、合同承包、合同管理，搞竞争机制，推行和坚持监理制度，实行业主负责制。施工单位应加强施工组织安排。9、经济评价9.1.评价依据（一）国家计委计办投资[2002]15号《投资项目可行性研究指南》（试用版）；（二）国家计委、建设部计投资（2006）530号《建设项目经济评价方法与参数》（第三版）；（三）交通部（1988）《公路建设项目经济评价办法》；（四）交通部公规院《公路技术经济指标》（第二次修订本）；（五）交通部公规院《公路建设项目可行性研究指南》；（六）交通部（1996.12）《公路建设项目可行性研究报告编制办法（讨论稿）》；9.2.评价方案、内容和目标9.2.1.评价方案项目经济评价采用推荐方案，项目总投资528.897万元，建设期为8个月，即2007年5月--2007年12月。项目交通量取自交通量预测章节，分年投资比例取自投资估算章节。9.2.2.评价内容该项目为非收费公路，根据规定只做国民经济评价，不做财务分析。国民经济评价经济费用—效益分析:国民经济评价指标:（1）经济净现值（ENPV）（2）经济内部收益率（EIRR）（3）经济效益费用比（EBCR）（4）经济投资回收期（EN）troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot9.2.3.经济评价根据“有-无”对比原则进行分析，得出项目经济评价结果，并提出结论性意见。9.3.经济评价的基本构想9.4.国民经济评价9.4.1.评价参数1.评价年限项目投资年限为8个月，通车后预测年限按《公路建设项目经济评价办法》规定为10年，评价基年为投资初年（2007年）。2.残值按《公路建设项目经济评价办法》规定，残值取工程费用的50%在公路使用末年以负值计入费用。3.社会折现率按《投资项目可行性研究指南》规定，社会折现率为10%。4.贸易费用率按《建设项目经济评价参数》规定，贸易费用率取6%。5.其他参数国内公路货物的影子运价为0.43元/吨公里。9.4.2项目经济费用从我国实际出发，国民经济评价应以市场价格为基础，通过调整市场价格获得影子价格。影子价格的作用就是在投资项目的国民经济评价中，使扭曲的价格得以纠正，实现社会资源的合理配置和有效利用。1.项目建设费用的调整（1）主要材料的影子价格确定项目建设所需的建材主要有木材、钢绞线、钢材、钢筋、水泥、沥青等。鉴于建材市场发育比较完善，现行价格失真不大，可以把当地市场价均值近似于影子价格计算;它们的影子价格见表9-1。主要材料价格表单位:元/吨，元/立方米表9-1troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot材料名称原木锯材钢铰线钢材加工钢材钢筋水泥沥青影子价格58089067003000500033693304000（2）劳动力工资的确定由于本项目所在地劳动力充足，公路建设施工技术要求较高等特点，影子工资换算系数取定为1.0。（3）土地费用的调整国民经济评价中的土地费用，应能反映土地不用于本项目所能创造的净效益，其费用为项目在整个土地占用期（20年）内净效益的现值总和。根据《建设项目经济评价方法与参数》（第二版）的有关规定，土地的影子价格=土地机会成本+新增资源消耗费用，土地的机会成本为其最佳替代产出品净收益在评价期内的现值之和，同时考虑了农产品的复种指数和年均增长情况。新增资源消耗费用在这里主要考虑了拆迁补偿等费用。项目需占用土地33.5亩，其中：水田13.5亩，占40%，林地20亩，占60％。根据实地调查，项目占用的耕地多用于种植水稻和蔬菜。据项目影响区的用地规划调查，公路占用的土地只有少数用于商业开发，经测算在评价期内本项目占用土地的加权平均影子价格为24136元/亩。2.养护管理费公路近年的养护管理情况，综合交通部公规院《公路技术经济指标》计算方法和我省的有关调查资料，综合起来确定。3.大修费按部颁JTJ012—94《公路水泥混凝土路面设计规范》，公路砼路面使用年限为20年，但本项目设计使用期为10年，评价期内的公路大修时间和费用不计。9.4.3.全社会公路使用者获得效益全社会公路使用者获得效益包括：由于公路新建获得客货运输成本降低；公路新建缩短里程而降低的运输成本；公路新建诱增交通量产生的效益；公路新建获得旅客在途时间减少；公路新建带来交通事故减少；公路新建使原有公路减少拥挤，客货运输成本不致因拥挤而上升等。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot1.代表车型的选定在《公路技术经济指标》车速-交通量（V-Q）模型中，均以小客车作为代表车型，因此，将各类车型交通量统一折算成小客车交通量。2.汽车运输成本调整汽车运输成本是道路经济效益计算中的一个十分重要的因素，道路经济效益中有很大一部份是由于项目所建后汽车运输成本降低而形成的。汽车运输成本是道路运输承运者进行客、货运输所消耗的以货币形式表示的一切费用。参照交通部《公路建设项目可行性研究指南》，以影子价格调整运输成本中所占比重较大的燃料、轮胎、保修、大修、折旧、养路费等要素，综合参考同地区的类似项目，剔除汽车运输成本中的车船使用税等，得影子价格的换算系数为0.93。下面就以上各项费用作简单的调整计算说明。（1）燃料的价格调整燃料影子价格及燃料消耗费用调整分别见表9-3、9-4。燃料影子价格表9-3项目产品比重（公斤/公升）影子价格（元/公斤）使用比例（%）综合价格（元/公升）柴油0.863.488303.07汽油0.734.24670燃料消耗经济费用表9-4燃料消耗量燃料消耗经济费用客车货车客车货车公升/千吨公里公升/千吨公里元/千吨公里元/千吨公里8276251.74233.32（2）轮胎的价格调整轮胎的价格调整,主要是扣除价格中直接转移支付部份,把财务价格还原为经济价格。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot据有关调查,轮胎的财务价格客车按700元/条,货车按900元/条。扣除21%的税金（产品税18%,营业税3%）,客、货车轮胎的经济价格分别为553元/条、711元/条。汽车运输每千吨公里平均消耗轮胎0.1条,则每千吨公里客货轮胎的经济费用分别为55.3元,71.1元,经客货车平均吨位实载率换算,得出客货车每千吨公里轮胎的经济费用,计算结果见表9-5。轮胎费用表9-5项目客车货车
财务费用（元/千吨公里）51.1090.00经济费用（元/千吨公里）40.4471.10（3）车辆保修费和大修费的调整车辆保修费可分为润滑油费和修理费,其中修理费包括材料消耗和人工消耗。这两类在保修费中占13%和87%,经济成本调整时,对这两类费用分别扣除润滑油的38%的税金（产品税、营业税）和修理费的3%的营业税;车辆大修费用只扣除3%的营业税金。计算结果见表9-6。车辆保修及大修费用表9-6项目费用调整客车货车保修费用（元/千吨公里）经济费用59.9138.08财务费用64.8041.27大修费用（元/千吨公里）经济费用18.3310.67财务费用18.9010.99（4）车辆折旧费的调整车辆折旧费是为了维持运输再生产,而每年提取的一定数额的资金,用于车辆的更新。所以它是车辆投资回收的财务表现形式,并不能反映国民经济对运输车辆的经济投入。而能够有效反映国民经济价格的是运输车辆的资金回收费用,因此,车辆折旧费的调整,首先应剔除车辆折旧费,然后增加车辆的资金回收费用。计算结果见表9-7。车辆折旧费调整表9-7项目客车货车troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot财务成本（元/千吨公里）64.5026.04经济成本（元/千吨公里）58.0523.44（5）养路费的调整因为项目的费用含有公路大修费、公路养护费,为避免重复,需将养路费中含有的大修、养护等项费用剔除。据调查,这些费用为养路费的30%,则汽车运输成本中的养路费经调整后,计算结果见表9-8。车辆养路费的调整表9-8项目客车货车财务成本（元/千吨公里）49.6954.65经济成本（元/千吨公里）34.7838.26（6）工资及提取的职工福利基金运输成本中劳动力的影子工资等于财务分析的名义工资,即换算系数为1,故不调整。（7）其它费用的调整其它费用调整的主要内容是剔除车船使用税等。调整后的汽车运输成本见表9-9汽车运输成本调整结果表9-9项目客车（元/千吨公里）货车（元/千吨公里）财务成本经济成本财务成本经济成本工资34.5334.5329.6329.63福利基金4.834.834.154.15燃料费用251.74251.74233.32233.32轮胎费51.1040.4490.0071.10保修费64.8059.9141.2738.08大修费18.9018.3310.9910.67车辆折旧费64.5058.0526.0423.44养路费49.6934.7854.6538.26运输管理费5.005.004.294.29troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot车船使用税2.5002.150其它费用19.5219.5216.7416.74管理费用77.5077.5066.4966.49合计644.61604.63579.72536.17影子价格换算系数0.9380.925据表9-9得客车、货车运输成本的影子价格换算系数分别为0.938和0.925,本项目客车占48.00%,货车占52.00%,综合汽车运输成本影子价格换算系数为0.93。各等级路段运输成本参照交通部公规院《公路技术经济指标》中有关等级公路运输成本与技术车速关系式计算（中型货车，1985年价格水平）：C=2851/V0.75605（元/千吨公里）将其转化为2005年价格水平车公里经济成本公式：C=1.05（2005-1985）×0.93×4.79×10-3×2851/V0.75605（元/车公里）式中:4.79为采用泉三高速公路OD调查（2001.7）得到的中型货车平均载运系数（吨/辆）；3.效益计算（1）降低营运成本的效益Ⅰ、公路晋级降低运输成本节约的费用公路新建，行车条件改善，是运输成本降低的根本原因，具体反映在许多方面，其中以行驶速度提高、车辆振动和轮胎磨损减少为主。其节约费用等于新路趋势型交通量乘以无新路时老路上的运输成本与新路上的运输成本之差。据调查，该项目相应的老路状况是:本项目为沙土路面，路况很差。以上老路状况说明，因其技术标准低、通行能力差，势必导致汽车运输成本之高等问题。V为车速（公里/小时），随着交通量的变化而变化，它与交通量的关系式，根据《公路技术经济指标》和现有道路网的实际状况作适当修正:二级公路V=156.7/Q0.1691四级公路V=70.5/Q0.0988Q—小客车年平均日交通量。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot在计算中考虑了道路交通量超出限制容量时对V—Q关系式的影响。将V—Q公式分别代入上式，再乘以新路趋势型交通量的总车公里数。II、里程缩短成本降低节约的费用新路趋势型交通量在老路上的总车公里与新路上的总车公里数之差，乘以老路运输成本即为里程缩短成本降低节约的费用。（2）旅客时间节约效益国内各省的公路可行性研究报告调查资料表明，时间节省的效益是公路项目经济效益的重要组成部分，也是最突出的效益之一。对多数交通项目来说，建设实施的成功与否关键在于能否节约位移时间。而位移时间的节约，意味着乘客生产时间的增加，运输时间的节约可加速车辆和资金周转，充分发挥运输工具的能力。公路新建、等级提高，导致运行条件改善，服务水平提高，车速加快。现有公路和新建公路不同等级路段的车速根据《公路技术经济指标》中有关车速与交通量关系式动态计算。旅客节约时间按OD调查客车载运系数。根据全省规划资料和在历史资料的基础上建立的经济发展预测模型分析，结合国民经济预测章节的“项目影响区域国民经济预测”，项目影响区域人均国民生产总值增长率，综合考虑各种递增因素，按3.0%（至开工前一年为止）。在国民经济评价中，计算期内不再考虑物价上涨。由于节约的时间不一定都用于有效的生产活动，假定节约时间的0.5用于有效的生产活动，即把“时间机会费用”看作小时收入的一半，则旅客利用时间价值系数取0.5进行分析，并折算到2005年价格水平，考虑到上路车辆的司机或乘客的人均国民生产总值等相关因素，参考有关资料，人均节约时间价值综合计算为1.40元/小时。（3）公路新建带来交通事故减少而获得的效益公路新建，标准提高，使交通事故较原有公路减少;同时，新建公路减轻相关老路的交通负担，使老路在未来交通流量不断递增的情况下，车流将大量转移或被吸引到公路上来，使相关老路的拥挤度减少，交通事故与无新建项目时相比大大下降。交通事故损失费（包括路况损失及车主损失），参照现有事故赔偿及处理情况来确定。本项目相关四级公路平均每次损失费为800元/次。考虑到事故发生率与交通流量及道路服务水平相关，故无项目和有项目时的事故率参照统计资料并结合预测交通量进行估算。9.4.4.国民经济评价结果troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot据国家计委计办投资[2002]15号《投资项目可行性研究指南》，项目国民经济效益费用流量表在计算现金流量时，不分投资资金来源，视全部投资均为自有资金，不考虑借款本金的偿还和利息的支付，为各个投资项目或投资方案进行比较建立了共同的基础。经计算，当社会折现率为10%时，项目国民经济效益费用流量评价结果。经济内部收益率(EIRR)16.64%(大于10%社会折现率)。经济效益费用比（EBCR）1.393。经济投资回收期（EN）16.63年。9.4.5.经济敏感性分析评价中所采用的数据，多数来自预测，为了分析这些不确定因素对项目的影响，需进行敏感性分析。在费用上浮20%,同时效益下降20%的不利情况下，项目的经济效益费用比(EBCR)为1.13，经济内部收益率(EIRR)13.36%(大于社会折现率10%),经济投资回收期(EN)19.67年（小于22年）。从国民经济评价结果来看，项目可行，并具有一定的抗风险能力。9.5.综合经济评价结果当社会折现率为10%时，项目国民经济效益费用流量评价结果。经济内部收益率(EIRR)16.64%(大于10%社会折现率)。经济效益费用比（EBCR）1.393。经济投资回收期（EN）16.63年。在费用上浮20%,同时效益下降20%的不利情况下，项目的经济效益费用比(EBCR)为1.13，经济内部收益率(EIRR)13.36%(大于社会折现率10%),经济投资回收期(EN)19.67年（小于22年）。综上所述，国民经济评价可行，并具有一定的抗风险能力。10、问题与建议10.1.存在的问题a.本项目为老路改建，施工时应做好施工组织安排，以保证车辆通过。b.本工程实施的关键问题是资金筹措，资金不能按时到位将影响工程质量及延误工期，务请有关部门落实筹资计划，确保资金即时到位，以利于施工计划顺利进行。c.有关施工用水，电力供应等具体情况，以及征地拆迁有待进一步详细了解收集。10.2.建议a.建议本项目尽快组织实施，以完善地方公路网，促进移民生活的改善和经济发展。b.建议在工可批准后，按线位两侧用地加以控制。troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenotc.建议施工时严格控制噪音，粉尘等污染，同时做好环保工作，避免水土流失和自然景观破化。.troublewiththeheroJordan,yetheisamaincharacterashiswifePilaris.Minorcharactersarethoseinremoteandstaticrelationwiththehero.Itiswrongtothinkthatminorcharactersareallunimportant.Insomenovels,oneorsomeoftheminorcharactersmayserveacriticalrole,structurallyorinterpretationally. Foilcharactersareonesthathelpenhancetheintensityoftheherobystrengtheningor contrasting.Theymaybemaincharactersorminorcharacters.Inaword,theyserveasfoilstotheheroorheroine.CohninTheSunAlsoRisesisagoodexample.Heisoneofthemaincharacters.LikeJake,heisalso“lost,”tryingvainlytoescapethepastbycourtingwomenanddrinking.ButduringtheirstayinSpain,CohndisplaysqualitiesincontrasttothosecherishedbyJake,whichmakesJakerealizehisownproblemsandfinallyfindasolution,thoughtemporarily.Cohnworksmainlybycontrast.WilsoninTheGreatGatsbyworksbypresenting.GatsbylosthislovertoTomandWilsonlosthiswifetoTom.BypresentingWilson’scasethenovelistintendstopointouttheprofoundcauseofGatsby’stragedy.Dr.WatsoninthestoriesofSherlockHolmesservesasafoiltothehero,renderingthedetectivesmarterthanhewouldotherwiseappeartothereader. Bythedegreeoftheirdevelopment,characterscanbegroupedasroundcharactersand flatcharacters.ThisdivisionisproposedbyE.MForster.Roundcharactersarefullydevelopedwhileflatcharactersarenot.Orwecansaythatroundcharactersgrowwhileflatcharactersdonot.Usuallythereaderisallowedaccesstotheinnerlifeoftheroundcharacterandpermittedtolearnaboutmanysidesoftheroundcharacter.Theflatcharacterisa“closed”charactertowhoseinnerthoughtsthereaderisdeniedaccess.Usuallyonesideoftheflatcharacterisshowninthenovel.Mostheroesareroundcharacterswhogrowemotionallyorspiritually. ChapterThreeTheme AristotleinPoeticslistssixbasicelementsoftragedy.Melody(song)anddiction(language)fallinthegeneralcategoryofstyle,andspectacleisrelevanttosettinginourdiscussionoffiction.Theotherthreeaspectsaremythosorplot,ethosorcharacter,anddianoia,whichwegenerallytranslateinto“thought”inEnglish.AccordingtoAristotle,plotisthe“soul”orshapingprincipleorfiction,andcharactersexistprimarilyasfunctionsoftheplot.Inmostofthestories,plotplaystheroleofprincipalstructureofthestory.But,asNorthropFryepointsout,besidestheinternalfictionofthecharacterandhis/hersociety,thereisanexternalfictionconsistingofarelationbetweenthewriterandthewriter’ssociety.WeindeedhaveliteraryworksbythelikesofShakespeareandHomerinwhichartistryiscompletelyabsorbedintheirinternalcharactersandwecanhardlyperceivetheexistenceoftheauthor.However,assoonastheauthor’spersonalityappearsonthehorizon,arelationwiththereaderisestablished,andsometimesthereseemsnostoryatallapartfromwhattheauthorisconveyingtohis/herreader.Inthiscase,theprimaryinterestindianoia,theideaorthoughtthatreadergetsfromthewriter,whichinmoderncriticismwegenerallycall“theme”. I.WhatIsTheme? Oneofthesafestcommentstomakeaboutnovelsisonthetheme.Everyoneisentitledtoextractathemebaseduponhisunderstandingofthenovel.Thememaybethemostdemocraticelementsinliterature,becauseitsdefinitionistheleastrestrictive.Thethemeofanovelisitscontrollingideaoritscentralinsight.Beinganideaoraninsight,thethemeshouldbeabstractanditshouldgeneralizeaboutlife.Labeledascontrollingorcentral,thethemeshouldbecapableofunifyingthewholenovel. Sothethemeofastory,then,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals. II.ClarificationaboutTheme Commonasitis,themesufferssomemisunderstandings.Onemisconceptionabout themeisthateachnovelhasathemeorthemes,orthemeisimportanttoallnovels.Infact,somenovels,interestingonesthough,donotprovideanyinsightintolife.Forexample,manynovelsofratiocinationandnovelsofhorror.Thesenovelsareaimedatentertainingthereader,notatimprovinghisunderstandingoflife.Theymaysometimestouchuponthehumannatureorsocialproblems,buttheseissuesareonlyusedtopushtheplotforwardandtheyarenotmentionedfortheirownvalue.Themeexistsonlyinthenovelthatseriouslyattemptstoreflectlifefaithfullyorintendstorevealtruthaboutlife,orinthenovelsthatarebasedonideasortheoriesoflife.(forexample,novelsofideas). Anothermisconceptionaboutthemeisthatthethemeislargelywhatthenovelis.Some peoplediscardthenovelwhentheythinkthattheyhavegotthetheme.Itshouldbemadeclearthatthenovelisnotwrittentoconveyanideabuttoconveyanideaartistically.Thenovelisaworkofartwhereasthethemeisonlyanabstractidea.Ananalogyfromdailylifemayhelpclarifythisquestion.Peopleallneedvitaminsandgetthemfromvariouskindsofvegetablesandfruits.Onlythosewithdeficiencyofonekindoranotherhavetotakevitaminpillstogettherequiredamount.Thedifferencebetweenthethemeandthenovelismuchlikethatbetweenthevitaminsandthevegetables.Thereadersometimesfindsthatthethemeofanovelissimilartooreventhesameaswhathehasalreadyknownaboutlifeandthatheisstillfascinatedbythenovel.Themeappealssolelytotheintellectuallevelofreadingwhilethenovelasawholemainlyappealstotheemotionallevel. Anotherpitfallconcerningthethemeistoconfuseathemewithmoralorlesson.Usually,amoraloralessonistheadvicestatedorimpliedinaparableorfable.Itissomethingofarulebywhichonecanregulatehisbehavior.Forexample,“Bekindtoyourneighbors,”or“Honestyisthebestpolicy.”Butathemeismorecomplicatedthanthisasanovelistoenhanceone’sawarenessofliferatherthansimplytotellhimhowtobehave. Anovelisacomplicatedmatteranddifferentreadersmayhavedifferentinterpretationsofthesamenovel,soitisincorrecttopresumethatonenovelhasonlyonetheme.Insomecases,thereareseveralsubthemestothemaintheme.Inreality,somenovelsareappreciatedfortheirthematicambiguity.Forexample,MobyDickcanbeinterpretedinmorewaysthanone. Finally,thethemeisnottobeconfusedwiththesubject.Thethemeisanideawhilethesubjectisamatteroranaffair.“Loveisinvincible”maybeatheme,but“love”isonlyasubject.Asubjectmaybeuniversal.ThesubjectsofTheScarletLetter,TheGreatGatsby,andWomeninLoveareall“love.”Butthesenovelshavedifferentthemes.Athemeisparticulartoitsnovel,thoughtherearemanysimilarthemestobefoundinothernovels. III.FiveRequirementsforStatingaTheme Thestatementofathememaybebrieforlong.Andtherearedifferentwaystoexpressone andthesametheme.Butitshouldmeetthefollowingrequirements. Athememustbeexpressedintheformofastatementwithasubjectandapredicate.Forexample,“Loveofone’scountryofteninspiresheroicself-sacrifice.”Ifathemeisexpressedintheformofaphrase,thenthephrasemustbeconvertibletosentenceform.Onecansaythatthethemeofanovelis“futilityofenvy.”Thephrasecanbechangedto“envyisfutile.”Whenonechoosestostateathemeinthephraseform,hemustbeverycarefulaboutitsconvertibilitytosentenceform.Forinstance,thephrase“selflessmaternallove”doesnotalwaysmeanthat“maternalloveisselfless.” Thethemeisgeneralizationaboutlifebasedonthenovel,andthestatementofthemeshouldbetruealsoofotherpeopleorlifesituations.Therefore,namesofcharactersandplacesshouldnotbementioned,fortheysuggestspecificthingsandinvitelimitations.SointhematicdiscussionofWutheringHeights,onemaymention“people’spsychologyofrevenge,”butnot“Heathcliff’s.” Thoughathemeisageneralization,over-generalizationshouldbeavoided.Sinceathemeisextractedfromaparticularnovel(aparticularevent),itmaynotbeapplicabletoallsituations.Sowordslike“always,”“never,”“all,”and“every”shouldbeavoided.Instead,oneshouldusewordslike“some,”“sometimes,”and“may.”Whenmakingageneralization,oneshouldstrictlykeeptowhatisactuallyinthenovelandnotsmuggleintoitassumptionssuppliedfromhispastexperience. Sincethemeisthecentralandunifyingideaofthenovel,itmustaccountforallthemajordetailsandmustnotbecontradictedbyandetailsinthenovel. Sinceathemeisdifferentfromamoraloralesson,oneshouldavoidreducingathemetoaclichéorplatitudelike“Beautyisonlyskin-deep.”Ifonecramseverynewexperienceintoanoldformula,helosestheopportunityofnewperceptionprovidedbyreadingnovels. IV.WheretoLookfortheTheme Thenovelistmaystateorimplythetheme.Heuseseverypossiblemethodtoconveythetheme.Thoughthethemeisbaseduponthewholenovel,practically,wecanspecifysomeimportantareasinwhichtolookforthetheme. Howthenovelisentitled.Thetitleisthenameofthenovelandinmanycases(almost allcases)thenovelistintendsittotellsomethingimportantaboutthenovel.Sometimesthecentralthemeofthenovelispresentinthetitle.Forexample,PrideandPrejudiceisaboutDarcy’sprideandElizabethBennet’sprejudice.MainStreetisaboutthelifeofmiddle-classpeopleinaMidwesterntown..ThinkwhatthetitleofForWhomtheBellTollstellsaboutitstheme,andAsIlayDying. Howthenovelistshowshisinterest.Ifthenovelistisinterestedinsomething,hewouldallowmorespacetoit,describingornarratingingreatdetail.Yet,sometimesheemphasizesitbyleavingitout,asinthecaseofErnestHemingway.Thepointconcernedhereisthatwhythenovelistgivesmoreattentiontothisparticularcharacter,sinceoreventbutnotothers. Howthenovelistdealswithacommonsubject.Oftenthenovelisthastoincludeinhisworksomecommonsubjects,butifhetreatsthecommonsubjectsinanuncommonway,itshowsthatheistryingtoconveysomethingneworimportantinthenovel.Maybeitisthethemethatdemandshimtodoso. Importantsymbols.Symbolsareloadedwithimportantmeanings.Soifasymbolappearsrepeatedlyoratimportantmoments,itmaypointtothethemeofthenovel.Agoodexampleistheletter“A”inTheScarletLetter. Importantspeeches.Characterstalkandintheirtalkarerevealedtheirjudgmentsoftheothercharactersorevent.Thecharacters’judgmentsmaygiveimportantcluestothetheme. V.Obviousandunobvioustheme Obvioustheme: Thethemeofastory,sinceweknow,iswhatevergeneralideaorinsighttheentirestoryreveals.Insomestories,thethemeisratherobvious.Forexample,inAesop’sfableaboutthecouncilofthemicethatcannotdecidewhowillbellthecat,thethemeisstatedinthemoralattheend:“Itiseasiertoproposeathingthantocarryitout.”Insomenovels,thetitlemayofferasuggestionaboutthemaintheme.Forexample,JaneAusten’sPrideandPrejudiceisnamedafteritstheme,andthewholestoryunfoldsitselfaroundthattheme.Insomenovels,thetitleisnotsonamedbuttheplotexistsprimarilytoillustratethethemeanditisnotverydifficultforustoinferwhatitis.Forexample,UncleTom’sCabinbyH.B.StoweandTheGrapesofWrathbyJohnSteinbeckvoicethethemesofslaveryandmigratorylaborrespectively.ThetitleofTheGrapesofWrathcomesfromalineinanextremelyfamousCivilWarsong,“TheBattleHymnoftheRepublic.”Thelineis,“HeistramplingoutthevintagewheretheGrapesofwratharestored,”whichmeans“anunjustoroppressivesituation,actionorpolicythatmayinflamedesireforvengeance:anexplosivecondition.”Thesongwaswrittenbyafamousandinfluentialsocialactivist,JuliaWardHowe. Unobvioustheme: Butinmostliteraryworksoffiction,thethemeisseldomsoobvious.Thatis,generallyathemeisnotamoralnoramessage,neitherisitclearlyconveyedinthetitle.Whenwefinishreadingafinelywroughtstory,itiseasiertosumuptheplot—tosaywhathappens—thantodescribethemainidea.TosayofJamesJoyce’s“Araby”thatitisaboutaboywhogoestoabazaartobuyagiftforayoungwomanbutarrivestoolateistosummarizeplot,nottheme.Inmanyfineshortstories,themeisthecenter,themovingforce,theprincipleofunity.Clearly,suchathemeissomethingmorethanthecharactersandeventsofthestory.Mostoftheshortstorieschallengeaneasy-cometheme.InHemingway’s“AClean,Well-LightedPlace,”asobservedbyKennedyandGioia,theeventsarerathersimple—ayoungwaitermanagestogetridoftheoldmanfromthecaféandtheolderwaiterstopsatacoffeebaronhiswayhome—butwhiletheeventsthemselvesseemrelativelyslight,thestoryasawholeisfullofmeaning.Foradeepunderstandingofthemeaning,wehavetolooktootherelementsofthestorybesideswhathappensinit:narrative,symbols,tone,thedialoguebetweenthetwowaiters,themonologueoftheolderwaiter,etc.Evidentlytheauthorintendsustopaymoreattentiontothethoughtsandfeelingsoftheolderwaiter,thecharacterwhosewordsechotheauthor’svoice.Onetryonthethememaybe:“Theolderwaiterunderstandstheoldmanandsympathizeswithhisneedforaclean,well-lightedplace.”Butherewearestilltalkingaboutwhathappensinthestory,thoughwearenot'