生态旅游综合开发项目可行性研究报告 73页

'personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    第一章总论1.1概论**市委、市政府确立未来旅游产业的发展目标：即紧紧围绕建设现代化生态城市的总体目标，树立**休闲度假旅游目的地形象，力争10年时间，将**打造成为享誉世界的国际精品旅游区，最终建成“北国湿地休闲之都，国际生态旅游名城”。　　针对**市由观光型向休闲度假型旅游过渡的发展现实，**市委、市政府把“实施生态立市”作为五大发展战略的首要战略，把“精心打造百公里生态湿地旅游带”作为全市两大产业带之一，正在将红海滩风景区、鼎翔生态旅游度假区整合为国家重点支持的《**生态旅游基础设施建设项目》，将其提升为5A级旅游区，被列为国家重点支持辽宁旅游基础设施第一名。鸭舌岛、辽河左岸湿地公园、辽滨水城、温泉养身休闲、湿地水上乐园等重点项目建设和设施配套正在实现新突破，以旅游大项目建设拉动相关经济的蓬勃发展，标志着**市旅游产业正在转型升级。随着辽宁沿海经济带开发开放上升为国家战略，**依托弥足珍贵的滨海湿地资源，已华丽转身，面向大海，全面开启了扬帆远航的新征程。《辽宁沿海经济带发展规划》中指出，“**要依托石油、湿地等资源优势，推进资源型城市转型，加快发展特色优势产业，建成具有北方水乡特色的石化城和环境宜居的滨海新城”。市委、市政府已明确表态：“我们一定要将**沿海地73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    带变成一条闻名世界的生态景观带、产业带。这是我们经济发展的重要支撑点，也是我们要创造的一个旅游高地。我们要充分挖掘湿地等旅游资源，科学规划，合理布局，打造个性鲜明的红海滩5A级景区、鼎翔生态风情小镇等一批特色景区，创建水上乘船游、湿地休闲体验游等精品旅游路线，提升旅游服务的国际化水平，使旅游产业跃上一个新的层次，向世界展现一个美丽的湿地休闲之都。2010年1月下旬，市长孙国相就水利工程及旅游项目建设情况进行工作调研时指出：“要科学选址、合理规划，将水利工程建设同旅游景观开发紧密结合，充分盘活周边资源，带动周边地区经济社会发展”。孙国相在调研中强调，要将辽河沿河经济发展同旅游项目建设紧密结合，加快资源型城市转型步伐，统筹实施辽河沿线开发和生态治理，发展沿河经济。要通过建设一大批推动经济社会发展、改善民生的水利工程和旅游项目，为推进全市经济更好更快发展提供强劲动力。1.2项目区域概况***位于盘山县西北部，北邻锦州市沟帮子经济开发区和赵屯镇，西南部与羊圈子苇场毗连，东隔西沙河与胡家镇相邻。位于东经121°27′～122°29′，北纬40°45′～40°27′。东西长为十三公里，南北宽为十公里，总面积98平方公里，占**73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    市总面积的2.45%，耕地面积近五万亩。辖十一个村(分场)，十九个自然屯。全乡共有居民4,304户，共14,538人，其中有三个朝鲜族村，人口为1,644人；满、回、锡伯族不足50人。1.2.1旅游资源***境内的青年水库是**第三大平原水库，面积为8,065亩，环周为10公里，库容1,200万m3。大约公元1610年以前（乾隆年间），由清朝翰林院院士张纯良建造一座海云寺，四面环水与渤海相连，北与医巫闾山同为一脉、灵气冲天，被民间传为风水宝地。历史记载是闾山青岩寺的下院，庙中供奉海龙王（亦称龙王庙），寺院中的大佛像高10m，每年香火鼎盛，香客络绎不绝。海云寺的传说甚多，“龙泉水不落”、“海眼通龙宫”、“庙随水涨”的奇观广为传颂。水库建于1958年，当地政府为了保护历史文物，在水库偏中西北处留有1.3万m2的孤岛（现域名为明珠岛），寺庙几经修缮至今保护完整，寺庙中住一70多岁高龄的僧人释觉凡主持日常佛教事务。水库内是繁殖鱼蟹天然场地。水面广袤，深度适中，可垂钓休闲、游艇逐浪，水面烟波浩淼，风景怡人。地下蕴藏着丰富的优质地热温泉资源，距地表约1,800米，水质优良，含氯化钠、氧化钙及氯化氟等多种有益矿物质及微量元素，常年水温42℃，出水量大约（4,000立方米/小时）。温泉中富含多种有益健康的微量元素，对人体的多种疾病有良好疗养功效。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    近年来研究还发现，温泉浴能够促进机体的免疫功能，调整植物神经系统，所以还有一定的保健和延年益寿作用。***境内有三个朝鲜族村，至今保留着该民族的风俗习惯，尤其在饮食方面代表了典型的朝鲜族风味，有许多市内及周边地区的游客不远百里慕名而来。甜水湖的水域资源、湿地植被景观资源、历史文物资源、民族风情资源、公路铁路交通资源、映衬闾山山脉、一条条巨龙越野穿过、地处北站经济带可谓中国北方甲天下！人文景观及旅游资源极具商业开发价值。1.2.2矿产资源***南部和西南部有丰富的地下海水资源，经探明储量达15.9亿m3，Mgcl2、Nacl、Br矿化度工业指标极具开采价值，可连续开采数百年。305国道北部地下水资源丰富，各项微量元素指标接近饮用矿泉水标准。1.2.3水资源境内有西沙河、张家沟、鸭子河、月牙河等中小河流，自北向南流经全乡，归辽河入渤海；拥有8,065亩的青年水库，水面辽阔，平均水深2米，生态保持良好。地面有三万多亩坑塘，水质肥沃，饵料充足，是繁殖鱼、虾、贝类、蟹的天然淡水养殖场。1.2.4土地资源***共有土地面积98平方公里。其中耕地为71,440亩，盐田4,382亩，苇田18,107亩，草地264亩，滩涂2,230亩。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    1.2.5交通资源甜水地处**、锦州两市交界，素有**的北大门之称，是连接辽西五市，通往关内的交通要道；沈山、沟海线铁路；秦沈、沟营大高速铁路绕境通过；３０５国道、京沈高速公路穿越境内。1.3项目提出的背景改革开放以来，我国的农业得以快速发展，取得举世瞩目的成绩，特别是种植业，我们用世界上7％的耕地养活24％的人口。但种植业发展面临耕地有限，单产难以快速大幅度提高的现实，对农村经济发展贡献的比重在逐年递减。党的十七大报告提出：“加快转变经济发展方式，推动产业结构优化升级；促进经济增长由主要依靠第二产业带动向依靠第一，第二、第三产业协同带动转变，由主要依靠增加物质资源消耗向依靠科技进步、劳动者素质提高、管理创新转变。”1.3.1整合资源开发生态旅游产业时序更迭、光阴荏苒。广袤辽阔的三角洲在自然界中无声的记录着***日新月异的变化，好风凭借力，送我上青云。近年来生态旅游度假村，这一商业模式取得了长足的发展。这个古老而又时尚、充满现代气息的休闲模式，给人们带来了全新的生活品味。厚天载物，适者生存73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    。随着一条条巨龙穿境而过，随着春华秋实的变幻，一片片稻田、一弯弯苇浪、一座座坑塘、一条条河流环抱的“一潭春水”，湖中观鱼跃、草底现牛羊的盎然生机；明珠岛、海云寺几百年沧桑的传奇故事为发展生态度假旅游提供了得天独厚的条件。该项目为**北站经济带注入了新的生机和活力，那些几乎被遗忘的北部三角洲从而成为新的财富增长点。***正在由相对独立产业向综合开发产业链迈进，产业化链条明显延伸，市场网络进一步完善和规范，整体科技水平和综合开发能力显著增强。1.3.2发展目标   **市生态型旅游产业发展战略，是以确立本市“北国湿地休闲之都，国际生态旅游名城”为最终目标的长远谋划。其目标包括定性和定量两个指标。   1、定性战略目标：   把**市建成北国湿地休闲之都，国际生态旅游名城。旅游收入占GDP10%以上，旅游业成为市域国民经济的支柱产业。2、定量战略目标 表1-1**市旅游发展定量战略目标分阶段定量战略目标占GDP产业地位2008年9--10％先导产业2010年10-11％支拄产业2015年12-14％支拄产业2020年15％以上支拄产业定量战略目标实现的特征包括：旅游发展速度高于市域国民经济8%的平均发展速度；2008-201073personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    年间旅游收入平均增长速度达到25%；2010—2015年间旅游收入平均增长速度达到20%；2015—2020年预计保持15%的稳定增长态势；从而成为**市产业结构战略框架的重要支柱产业之一。   3、各规划期旅游接待人数和收入指标根据对**市旅游业“十五”、“十一五”期间旅游接待与收入历史统计数据的分析，应用时间序列预测法计算，并依据本市旅游资源与市场匹配程度作适当调整，预计**市旅游业各规划期旅游接待人数和旅游收入指标见下表表1-2各规划期旅游接待人数和旅游收入单位：万人次；￥亿元年份旅游接待（万人次）GDP平均增长旅游总收入平均增长国内海外总数国内海外（万美元）总收入2008年9808.21988.276382878.7基期2009年145111.21462.248.7％113.5540111748.7%2010年171012.0172250％1165229119.750%2015年342024.03444100％23210458127100%2020年598542602775％40618301407.875％1.3.3区域旅游发展背景甜水湖生态旅游度假村具有高品位的地理人文景观资源，兼有水域风光和生物多样化的特点。这里系辽河入海口，冲积三角洲末端滨海沉积平原。特殊的地质构造、茂密的树林、广袤的芦苇、河流、岛屿、滩涂、沼泽和水库，构成了别具特色的北国滨海河川湿地自然景观。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    项目区拥有良好的湿地景观资源，如植被、鸟类栖息地、水系等，濒临湿地核心保护区，且拥有良好的道路交通基础设施，以及邻近**北站的区位优势。**市以湿地生态为骨干的旅游资源丰富、特色鲜明，但由于旅游产品开发滞后、旅游基础设施和服务配套设施欠缺，资源优势尚未转化为市场优势。根据**市委、市政府《**市旅游“十一五”发展规划》，进一步发挥旅游产业拉动性强、市场需求潜力大、投资效益好、容纳就业多、发展速度快等特点和优势，进一步推动产业结构调整和优化、全力推进旅游业的发展，促进对外开放，将**打造为“世界湿地休闲之都”。项目地处京沈高速公路、铁路与305国道、沟海铁路交汇处。境内的西沙河、张家沟、鸭子河、月牙河自北向南流归辽河入渤海，甜水湖地处四条河流下游。1.8万亩苇田同羊圈子苇场毗连，岸边坑塘星罗棋布，8,065亩湖面平均水深2m，是生态衍生鱼虾蟹的天然场所。260亩草地是发展生态畜禽的天然放牧场。浑、太、辽河给与甜水湖的生态补水为岸边的生态农业提供了用之不尽的生态水源。芳草、芦苇、农田、碧水、蓝天融为一体故有北三角洲小江南之美誉。甜水湖、明珠岛、海云寺、龙王庙同生态观光融为一体，协调自然，是北三角洲水乡风情园的主题特色。形成了旅游竞争优势，并使其脱颖而出，必将成为我国北方旅游业的顶级靓点。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    在旅游产业不断壮大和旅游目的地功能不断增强的今天，甜水湖度假村必然向一定的主题化发展。综观中外旅游特色景点已经成为集自然生态观光、精品购物、餐饮、娱乐、水上运动于一体的风景如画的旅游基地。每个旅游俱乐部都是以自然观光、旅游度假、娱乐运动等为主题。这类旅游产品具有很大的市场需求、发展空间和开发潜力。甜水湖旅游度假村充分利用水利工程、荒地、滩涂等低产业密度用地，开发建设生态旅游度假村及相关产业，倡导环保理念，发展循环经济，充分挖掘土地潜力，有利于土地价值综合提升。1.3.4区域社会经济背景2009年，**市生产总值实现685亿元，是2004年的1.8倍，2008年开始驶入两位数增长的快车道；财政一般预算收入增长24.4%，达到43.4亿元，是2004年的2.3倍；全社会固定资产投资增长47.9%，达到543亿元，是2004年的3.6倍。万元生产总值综合能耗比“十五”期末下降21.7%，主要污染物排放实现控制目标。县区经济竞相崛起，生产总值年均增长27.5%，高于全市19个百分点。　　过去的五年，是多元产业快速形成、经济结构向全面优化加快迈进的五年。累计建设投资千万元以上项目837个，竣工投产487个，非油气采掘业增加值占全市比重由49.6%提高到70.8%，国家资源型城市转型试点工作取得重大进展。　　73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    ***2009年新招商引进投资超千万大型企业17家，总投资近3亿元，开工建设8家、建成投产9家，项目储备13个。***生产总值实现8.259亿元，同比增长83.6%；其中农业实现1.1661亿元，同比增长36.8%；工业实现4.783亿元，同比增长105.7%；三产业实现0.9674亿元，同比增长28.3%；财政一般预算收入实现776.5万元。1.3.5打造甜水湖度假村的主体功能甜水生态旅游度假村借助**北站经济带，依托甜水湖及湿地景观、依托明珠岛海云寺的古文物、依托生态农业充分利用生态水资源、依托**北站开发新区与**湿地旅游环线，以生态旅游度假为起点、以水上游艇、捕鱼垂钓、温泉洗浴为卖点，以海云寺古文物为靓点，以生态农业为支撑；形成以观光生态农业为主打，水上景区旅游、温泉洗浴、商务度假、农家食宿为主线，打造湿地特色异域风情度假品牌。可提供水上娱乐、景区拍摄、商务会谈、休闲娱乐、亲友聚会、游艇驾驶培训和水上旅游等服务功能。1.4编制依据1.4.1相关法律法规《中华人民共和国城市规划法》《中华人民共和国环境保护法》《中华人民共和国水法》《中华人民共和国水污染防治法》《中华人民共和国土地管理法》73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    《风景名胜区管理暂行条例》《中华人民共和国自然保护区条例》《中华人民共和国植物保护条例》1.4.2有关标准、规范《中华人民共国旅游规划通则》（GB/T18971-2003）《旅游区（点）质量等级的划分与评定》（GB/T17775－2003）《旅游资源分类、调查与评定》（GB/18972－2003）《风景名胜区规划规范》（GB50298-1999）1.4.3相关规划、计划《东北地区振兴规划》《辽宁沿海经济带开发建设规划》《**市土地利用总体规划》《**市旅游总体规划》《**市“十一五”发展规划》《**市国民经济和社会发展“十一五”规划》《**市“十一五”旅游发展规划》《**市环境保护“十一五”发展规划》1.4.4其他相关材料《建设项目经济评价方法与参数》第二、三版；***政府提供的有关资料和数据；新建项目的有关法律法规及政府文件；实地踏勘与访谈资料73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    网络及其它公共渠道资料1.5编制原则1.5.1贯彻国家经济建设方针、政策，认真执行国家对节能环保和安全卫生要求。1.5.2合理利用资源，规划建设经济合理。1.5.3优化设计、合理布置、节约用地、节省投资。1.5.4优化流程、节省人、财、物。1.5.5合理配备公用设施，满足项目建设要求。1.6研究结论借助**北站经济带开发；依托北三角湿地景观；充分利用甜水湖、明珠岛、海云寺的自然景观和古文物资源；开发利用地下温泉资源；开发生态种植业养殖业，依托滨海开发新区形成的旅游环线，充分利用青年水库及周边19.11km2的自然生态保护区。开发6个各具特色的生态观光项目；以最核心的资源，6位一体，整合打造甜水湖自然生态观光风景区。该项目整合当地资源，促进了生态农业的的良性循环，顺应人们对生态食品和生态环境的需求，顺应老知青对乡土故里的恋情。利用自然生态农业资源、利用地热温泉资源、利用大辽河生态水资源，开发生态观光旅游项目。本项目以推进新农村建设为指导，以开发特色的多功能生态产业体系、开发建设生态73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    观光旅游产业基地，形成良性循环的生态产业链，提升产业经济的附加值，带动相关行业向产业化经营目标发展，促使社会效益、经济效益和农民增收同步提高。通过对生态效益、社会效益和经济效益的综合评价，此项目都是可行的，是功在当代利在千秋的举措。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    第二章市场需求及预测2.1市场现状2.1.1甜水湖自然保护区开发现状甜水湖自然保护区区域面积19.11km2，芦苇、滩涂、草地、坑塘、水库比邻错落形成了天然的湿地景观。甜水湖亦称青年水库，是辽宁省较大的平原水库之一，位于西沙河右畔，距**北站1km、305国道4.5km，库区围堤高7m、坝顶宽4m，围堤长11.3km，水域面积8065亩。平均水深2m，库容量1200万m3。湖中有一小岛域名明珠岛面积1.3万㎡，岛上树木茂盛、鸟语花香，林荫深处海云寺映衬其中。海云寺（龙王庙）始建于清朝乾隆年间，至今已有400多年的历史，当年由清朝翰林院院士张纯良主持建造，四面环水与渤海相连、向北与医巫闾山同为一脉灵气冲天，被民间视为少有的风水宝地，海云寺院的大佛像身高10m、金光四射，寺内香火缭绕，常年香客络绎不绝。关于海云寺的传说甚多，较为传奇的有龙泉、海眼、庙随水涨等。龙泉：在海云寺的东南角，有一眼一米见方的泉水井，井中的泉水旱天水不落、涝雨天水不涨是寺内唯一的饮水井，每年四月初八庙会、善男信女香客73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    云集，无论用水多少井水从不见少，传说在阴天初一、十五的晚上偶尔会看见从天上到泉水井有一道白光亮如闪电，像是龙王吸水、气势磅礴，以后人们便称之为“龙泉”。海眼：在寺的西侧有一条不干沟，沟中有一条深坑叫“无底坑，相传民国7年时逢大旱，河水都干了但无底坑不干，人们来掏水捞鱼，可无论多少人掏水也不见少，据说无底坑通龙宫、叫海眼。庙随水涨：据当地老人讲：民国17年发大水，海云寺邻村九间房洪水已经上炕了，当时屯里的水位比龙王庙高出一米左右，人们担心龙王庙被大水淹了，大水过后只见庙四周的树上挂满了淤柴，可是让人吃惊的是庙里却滴水未进，真可谓神奇！从此人们开始相信庙随水涨的传说……。甜水湖自然生态保护区特殊的地质构造、集湿地植被、鸟类栖息地、滩涂、荒草地、茂密的树林、广袤的芦苇、河流、岛屿、滩涂、沼泽、水库和古文物，构成了别具特色的北国滨海河川湿地自然景观。濒临湿地核心保护区，且拥有良好的道路交通基础设施，以及邻近**北站的区位优势。为开发旅游业提供了得天独厚的条件。2.1.2生态农业市场现状目前国内的粮食、水果、蔬菜、和畜禽肉、蛋的市场供应多为污染超标的食品，在市场很难买到无污染的生态绿色食品，货真价实的生态食品那还是40年前的回忆，难怪过来人说：“现在啊，肉没肉味、果没果味、菜没菜味、鱼虾没鱼虾味”73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    ，过去的东西再也吃不到了！通过本项目的示范建设，就是要返回生态的人居环境、生态的饮食环境。根据城市不同层次抽样调查结果表明：经商的老板对生态绿色食品的需求和价位是：全部食用价位可高2倍；公务员和白领阶层的需求是：全部食用价位可高1.5倍；一般市民的需求是：部分食用价位可高1.3倍。过路旅游者：体验庄家院生活、观光生态农业，洗矿泉浴，吃生态食品还要买上带走价位可高2倍。通过食用生态食品，可平衡人体需求的各类维生素，无污染的生态食品可以杜绝引发各类疾病，食用无激素的肉食品可以杜绝引发少儿早熟和软骨病，并且生态食品味道纯正、甜美自然。2.1.3生态温泉市场现状我国温泉利用虽然已有数千年历史，但温泉旅游的发展却只有几十年过程，分别经历了温泉资源的原始利用、温泉疗养院到温泉旅游度假区的发展阶段。第一代（洗浴）——第二代（疗养）——第三代（戏水）——第四代（多元化）。近年来，温泉经济日渐兴起，温泉旅游开发的热潮也渐渐在全国形成，以露天温泉为特色的第三代温泉产品较为普遍，功能由单纯的医疗、疗养旅游发展为观光度假、康体休闲、商务会议、娱乐、休疗养等多种功能，旅游者也从特殊的群体向大众化发展，形成了同时发展康体旅游、娱乐旅游、体育旅游、商务旅游、会议旅游、旅游地产等多功能的综合性旅游度假区，温泉开发正在由汤治、保养、休养向观光、娱乐、休闲、度假转换。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    虽然各游地的客源市场、游客行为和生命周期具有不同的特征，但总体来说，生态农业观光旅游作为一种特殊的具有特色的旅游产品，其市场和产品特征具有一定的规律，据有关问卷调查结果显示：露天温泉特色、整体环境、温泉医疗功能；户外观光娱乐型和综合型温泉旅游地是两大游客喜好的温泉旅游地类型。以生态文化和休闲娱乐为特色的第四代产品更具发展潜力。2.1.4市场定位**市生态型旅游产业发展战略，建立在大体量的滨海湿地生态环境和多样化的生态旅游资源基础之上，目前红海滩风景区、鼎翔生态风情小镇、鸭舌岛湿地公园已初具规模。为规划和设计生态旅游产品提供了得天独厚的环境资源。因此，本市生态旅游发展定位于生态敏感型旅游群体，其中国内市场为主导市场，海外市场为重要市场。具体为:2.1.3.1国内主导市场   一级市场:东北工业城市。   本市场以沈阳、长春和哈尔滨为客流枢纽中心，覆盖大连、丹东、本溪、抚顺、鞍山、辽阳、营口、海城、铁岭、朝阳、锦州、阜新、延吉、吉林、大庆、牡丹江、齐齐哈尔等工业城市。以沈阳为中心由钢都鞍山、煤都抚顺、煤铁之城本溪、煤电之城阜新、石油之城**、轻纺之城丹东、化纤之城辽阳和粮食煤炭基地铁岭构成的省内城市群，又是本市场的核心。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    一级国内市场是中国传统的重工业基地，又是目前国内重点发展的工业城市经济圈之一，具有大密度的工矿企业和从业人口。该市场的主要消费群体可细分为：工矿企业奖励旅游群体，工矿企业疗养旅游群体，企业会议旅游群体，城市居民节假日和周末度假休闲旅游群体，政府和企业的公务与商务旅游群体等。   二级市场:京津沪文化大都市。   本市场以北京、天津和上海为客流枢纽中心，覆盖京津唐大都市经济圈和长江三角洲大都市经济圈。其中，京津唐大都市经济圈已经形成了以高新技术产业、电子、汽车、机械制造业为主导的产业集群，各具特色的产业带开始形成，并对河北、山东、山西及内蒙古产生着强大的向心引力和辐射力。长三角大都市经济圈以上海为核心，其城市化水平整体较高，正处在向工业化中后期发展的阶段，未来10年内有可能成为我国区域经济发展的重要增长极和亚太地区经济发达地区之一。   二级国内市场是中国的经济和文化中心所在地，具有大量现实和潜在的高素质生态旅游者，可细分为：高知生态旅游消费群体，外资、合资和高新技术企业白领旅游消费群体，自驾车家庭旅游消费群体，高等院校青年学生旅游消费群体，都市居民节假日和周末休闲度假消费群体，中央部委和全国性行业组织的会议旅游消费群体，外国驻京使、领事馆和大公司办事处官员及商务代表旅游消费群体等。三级市场:东南沿海经济发达城市。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    本市场以广州和福州为客流枢纽中心，包括珠江三角洲经济圈和福建省。其中，珠三角是中国市场化及国际化程度最高的大都市经济圈。珠江东岸上形成了以深圳、东莞、惠州为主的电子信息产业群，西岸上形成了以广州、佛山、珠海为主的电器产业群，这里聚集了中国大量知名的高新技术企业和世界知名大企业。侨乡福建，正在形成以福州为中心包括厦门、漳州、泉州、莆田在内的海湾经济带，并初步形成了经济特区、沿海开放城市、经济技术开发区、台商投资区、保税区、高科技园区等全方位对外开放型经济发展格局。三级市场是目前国内旅游需求最旺盛的地区，而**市北国湿地休闲产品对该市场较为成熟的旅游者具有强烈的反差吸引力。该市场可细分为：企业家和高级管理人员休闲度假消费群体，高收入家庭避暑休闲消费群体，企业奖励旅游消费群体，商务及会议旅游消费群体等。2.1.3.2海外重要市场   一级市场:日韩地缘生态敏感国家。   日本是世界经济强国，也是中国传统的第一大旅游客源大国。韩国是世界上经济发展速度最快的国家之一，近年来迅速崛起为中国第二大旅游客源大国。2001年，两国分别名列中国旅游客源大国前两位；2002年继续保持了20%以上的客源增长率。**市距日韩市场较近，并具有对该市场具有强烈吸引力的湿地生态旅游资源，加之近年来**73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    市与日韩文化、经济与旅游交流活动不断增加，因而该市场具备开发成本市一级海外市场的条件。该市场可细分为：湿地生态观光旅游消费群体，生态系统观摩与考察旅游消费群体，商务旅游消费群体和民间文化交流旅游消费群体等。   二级市场:港澳台血缘生态敏感地区。港澳台是中国大陆入境旅游具有血缘关系的重要客源市场，港澳台地处中国南部，在自然景观和气候等方面与具有北国湿地特征的**市存在巨大差异。血缘相通，景观相异，有利于**市以独特生态旅游产品吸引该市场的湿地避暑休闲度假消费群体，湿地生态观光消费群体，湿地观鸟专项旅游消费群体，商务考察与经贸会展旅游消费群体等。三级市场:欧美经济发达生态敏感国家。欧美经济发达国家是中国长期稳定的海外客源市场。经济发达国家的旅游者具有较高的消费能力和丰富的旅游经验，倾向于探索新的旅游目的地，追求自然生态环境良好的旅游经历。其主要细分市场为生态系统科学考察消费群体，湿地生态观光消费群体，湿地及生态保护协会专业会议消费群体，成熟旅游者的湿地探奇消费群体等。2.1.3.3生态景区农业观光旅游73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    生态农业观光旅游产品属于区域性产品，游客以中近程游客为主，近90％的国内游客来自一级客源市场和二级客源市场，近80％的游客集中在4小时交通半径范围内的区域。旅游地淡旺季受气候的影响变化不大，一般而言，春冬寒冷季节所在月份是温泉旅游的旺季，而炎热的夏秋季节是生态农业观光旅游旺季。第二代温泉旅游产品的消费者近60％是月收入3000元以上的高收入阶层。第三代温泉旅游产品消费者则主要是商务和公务游客。2.1.3.4游客行为露天温泉特色、整体环境、温泉医疗功能是影响游客决策行为的主要因素；生态农业观光度假、温泉旅游度假是游客喜好的旅游产品。观光度假是游客出游的主要目的，其中以观光为主，度假为辅。大约30％的国内游客是单位组织而来，是游客出游的主要方式，这是现阶段高门票的温泉和生态景区农业观光综合旅游地兴旺的重要因素。旅游产品口碑是影响游客决策行为的主要因素，近70％的游客是首次出游客人，受市场信息影响大。2.1.3.5生命周期以单一的客房式度假旅游为特点的第一、二代温泉旅游产品竞争力差，可替代性强，生命周期短，目前大多已经进入消亡期。以露天温泉为特色的第三代温泉旅游产品目前处于巩固期，要维持较长的生命周期，必须在强化温泉旅游文化特色的同时，不断更新项目。以文化和休闲娱乐为特色的第四代产品逐渐深入人心，发展潜力大。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    体验农家小院生活，就地观、采、钓、宰购就地加工和带走，篝火晚宴、观光生态农业、观光生态放牧围猎野兔又是度假旅游的一大特色。2.2市场分析2.2.1生态旅游产品以甜水湖自然保护区旅游；以古文物、生态湿地观光；以天然地热温泉为支撑，以本市及周边城市消费群体、以电视、广播广告为媒介。向游人展示：用生态水源、生态有机农肥、用人工伴机械播种和中耕除草、用低毒无公害农药和激光杀虫；生长的生态有机水稻、玉米杂粮、水果、蔬菜。展示：用生态饲料和水喂养、生态环境放养的鸡、鸭、猪和野兔；用生态水草和自然环境生长的鱼、虾、蟹。展示：地热温泉资源给与的健康与快乐。展示：甜水湖保护区的生态湿地候鸟种群、广袤的湖面、明珠岛上古老而传奇的历史文物、与渤海相连的芦苇荡、茂密的树林草地构成了别具特色的北方湿地景观。展示：捕捞垂钓、采摘、捡蛋、现场宰割加工畜禽肉食产品的乐趣；老知青回访的乐趣；农家院现采、现捡、现钓、现宰现做的乐趣。作为**北站经济带的集散地，建设特色驿馆、温泉浴场、农家大院、知青大院供游人休憨和观光。2.2.2我市旅游发展趋势73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    **紧邻辽宁中部城市群，以京沈、沈大、滨海、盘海营高速公路和京哈铁路，与京哈连接的大、营、盘、沟线等为主干的区域交通网络发达。同时**滨邻渤海，是东北地区唯一的河流入海口，滨海湿地生态环境与东北内陆形成很大的差异，对旅游客源市场有很强的吸引力。环渤海地区旅游的最主要的目的地是滨海休闲度假、观光。从近几年数据统计来看，**旅游市场发展迅速，游客人数和旅游收入保持较快增长；从旅游目的来看，以观光旅游和休闲度假为主。2009年，“十一”黄金周期间全市接待海内外游客217万人次，同比增长61%；旅游总收入9.3亿元，同比增长72%；市内相关酒店饭店入住率100%，各项旅游指标再创新高。牢牢抓住辽宁“五点一线”建设的有利契机，利用**与东北内陆景观环境上的差异性，发挥产业基础优势；面向辽宁腹地提供旅游服务。发展壮大景区生态旅游业，从而拉动相关产业和地方经济快速发展。2.2.3区域旅游市场近年来**旅游景观建设和旅游线路整合力度加大，对游客的引力增强。2009年**市接待旅游人数1,462.2万人次，入境游客突破11.2万人次。**市2007~2009年旅游统计主要指标对比攀升见下表73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    表2-1摘要年份200720082009国内旅游人数760万人次979.5万人次1451万人次国内旅游收入51亿元76亿元113.5亿元入境旅游者5.3万人次8.21万人次11.2万人次旅游外汇收入2324美元3828万美元5401万美元旅游总收入52.7亿元78.7亿元117亿元在2009年“十一”黄金周旅游主要有以下特点：旅游接待人数和旅游综合收入，实现高速增长。“十一”黄金周，全市接待国内外游客217万人次，旅游收入9.3亿元，分别比去年同期增长61%和72%。2009年“十一”黄金周，全市接待游客增多，过夜游客大幅度增加。住宿、餐饮、交通客运兴旺，市区主要宾馆入住率达100%以上，相关旅游餐饮、旅游客运也有明显的同比增长。2.3游客调查分析根据《**市旅游发展总体规划》及相关市场调查资料，得到**旅游的游客的消费行为具有以下特征。2.3.1旅游客源增长特征分析**市2009年接待旅游者1462.2万人次，旅游总收入完成117亿元人民币，分别比2008年增长48％和48.7%；相当于全市GDP的17.08％。由于在旅游业初始发展阶段，即目的地生命周期的介入期，旅游者接待人数基数较小，在客源增长上表现为爆炸式数量扩张特征。2.3.2客源市场地域结构特征分析73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    **市2007～2009`年接待旅游者3,215.21万人次，其中入境旅游者占7.69%，**市的居民占12%，省内各市占32%，京津地区的占38%，其他地方的旅游者占10.31%。这一旅游者构成比例说明，京津地区和省内游客是本区域的主要客源市场。国内旅游客源在未来**市旅游发展中仍将长期处于主导地位，但随着本市外向型经济和世界湿地休闲之都生态旅游的发展，在中远期海外商务、生态等旅游者数量预计将有较大增长。2.3.3**客源市场地域构成旅游动机与消费行为特征分析。据**市抽样调查，旅游者来盘旅游动机按比重排列依次为，休闲观光度假；探亲访友；商务、会议、文化科技体育交流；健康疗养、宗教朝拜及其他。**市现有市场影响力较高的旅游产品和旅游环境，主要是自然生态景观、滨海休闲度假旅游、生态农业、辽河油田和城市公园，旅游产品表现为初级观光形式。抽样调查显示，目前来**旅游的国内游客消费水平较低，平均停留时间较短，这与目前休闲、度假、商务、会议等高档次设施配套不足，项目单一等有关。2.3.4旅游者的人口学特征分析1、年龄构成不同年龄旅游者受可自由支配的时间和闲暇时间以及身体因素等影响，其对旅游产品偏好会产生较大的差异。调查结果表明，**73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    市国内旅游者中25-44岁年龄组游客占绝对优势，占到76％；45-64岁和15-24岁，分别为19.43%和4.57%；而14岁以下和65岁以上的游客比重很小，这与我国大部分旅游区旅游市场年龄结构相似。2、职业构成不同职业旅游者的收入水平、闲暇时间、受教育程度有差异，旅游欲望和旅游需求偏好也不一样。**市旅游者在职业构成上呈现出多样化特征。调查发现私营业主所占比重最大，达20.94%，其次为农民和公务员。值得注意的是农民群体旅游者已成为一个新兴的群体，达到12.57%。**市国内旅游者职业组成见下表表2-2序号职业比重%1工人6.82农民12.53军人3.24教师7.95学生2.16公务员10.57私营业主20.98公司职员8.99离退休人员2.110企事业管理人员6.811专业技术人员4.212其他14.13、收入构成调查结果表明，**市旅游者在收入构成上以收入1,000元／月以下和1,000—1,999元／月两个收入组所占的比重最大，两者共占72.49％。**73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    市国内旅游者以中等收入者为主，旅游产品开发和旅游住宿设施建设初期，要考虑到旅游者的消费能力，应以广大中等收入的工薪阶层与农民为主。国内旅游者收入构成见下表表2-3序号月收入（元）比重%1＜100031.7521000~199970.7432000~299913.7643000~49998.995＞50004.76第三章项目建设的必要性**73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    是最具发展潜力和战略投资价值的城市，其中建设生态农业产业链，向市场提供绿色生态食品是关系国计民生、造福子孙的基本国策，而“生态农业观光旅游产品”则是最具战略投资价值的项目。该项目地处**北站经济带、北三角洲末端和锦州市沟帮子接壤，项目区的苇田毗连羊圈子苇场。区域内水库、岛屿、古寺；芦苇荡、滩涂坑塘、河流、草地湿地植被保护完整、湿地景观优势凸显。毗邻重要能源基地辽河油田，京沈、沈大、盘海营高速公路铁路紧密相接，优越的区位和凸显的地缘优势，使甜水湖自然保护区成为极具开发潜力的最佳发展区域。2007年8月6日国家旅游局副局长张希钦，实地参观、调研了盘山县旅游发展情况。还饶有兴致地参观了***青年水库和高升镇的森林公园，他鼓励当地党委、政府及旅游部门要重视旅游，珍惜资源，避免资源闲置、浪费，做好县域合理开发利用旅游资源，形成旅游产业的长期规划。论证的产业优势、环境优势、区位优势、资源优势、价值优势充分地肯定了项目建设的必要性。3.1重大区域发展战略的交汇点地处辽宁环渤海经济开发带，辐射辽西地区，是辽中城市群、辽西经济走廊和沿海经济带三大战略板块的交汇点，是东北振兴战略与京津唐“环渤海”战略对接的前沿窗口，是我国最具想象空间、最具发展潜力的战略要地。3.2世界罕见的资源环境73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    随着我国工业化、城市化进程不断加快，宜食、宜居、宜旅、宜业的高品质生态区域越来越少，稀缺性越来越强。**拥有两大垄断性稀缺资源，世界罕见的“红海滩”奇观和亚洲面积最大、生态系统保存最完整的湿地。同时，**汇集了五种环境景观资源：一是滨邻渤海，有独特的北方滨海景观，海岸线从大辽河口至大凌河口，全长118公里；二是辽河入海，近海滩涂30万亩，浅海水域面积120万亩，海洋生物和滩涂贝类资源丰富，河口沼泽，**海域滩涂总面积3.55万公顷；三是古镇渡口：主要包括田庄台渡口、三汊河渡口、下口子渡口、双台子渡口、沙岭后壕渡口等；四是湿地温泉，**市处在地热带上，有丰富的地热和温泉资源；五是水库水网：**市地上水系发达，境内有7座水库，总蓄水量18,380万立方米，水域面积超过60平方公里，大、中、小型河流21条，境内总流域面积3,750.3平方公里。其中，全程流域面积大于5,000平方公里的大型河流有4条，中型河流有1条，小型河流有16条。其中，外辽河与新开河是辽河与大辽河的连通河道。五大配套资源形成综合环境优势，以湿地为核心品牌，整合历史文化、江河资源、工业旅游多种资源于一体，成为休闲、娱乐、健身、户外运动中心，有条件成为国际性自然生态农业观光和湿地旅游的目的地。3.3多元市场的汇集我国正处于区域经济板块整合重构过程中，随着交通网络的进一步完善，**73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    与环渤海地区、京津唐地区及东北经济板块之间的互动日益增强，成为东北地区面向环渤海和京津唐地区的桥头堡之一。因此，必将出现大规模的、近距离的外部消费群体向该区域汇集。环渤海地区、京津唐地区、东北地区将成为**市场的三大支撑性区域市场。“营（口）盘（锦）”地区基础市场，以商务、休闲和房地产等市场消费为主；辽中城市群及东北周边地区是核心市场，以假日休闲、会议培训、休闲度假等市场消费为主；京津唐地区是拓展市场，以休闲度假及度假房产等市场消费为主，从而形成多元消费市场的组合。3.4国家发展战略与政策的扶持**是国务院确立的11个资源型城市转型试点城市之—，国家在资金、政策等方面都给予了有力的支持，在建立社会保障体系、构筑维护社会稳定的措施，资助试点城市修复城市基础设施,进行棚户区改造，在产业规划、财政转移支付、金融信贷等政策方面对试点城市给以倾斜。3.5城市拓展向沿海转移在《辽宁沿海经济带开发建设规划》城镇化战略中指出，要完善城市功能，引导人口向沿海经济带聚集，向沿海地带延伸将是城市发展的总体趋向。根据《**市城市总体规划》，从城市结构调整和城市发展走向来看，**旅游综合开发项目所在区域是城市向新区拓展的重要地段，是承接沿海产业带和区域拓展的战略要地，承接城市的总体发展方向。3.6土地整合开发的必要性73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    以北站经济带为媒介，以甜水湖自然生态保护区为为看点，以整合生态农业为支撑，以开发建设观光旅游区为动力，促进生态农业产业化经营与第三产业的链接，建设新型生态小镇，开发生态旅游项目及相关产业，倡导环保理念，发展循环经济，充分挖掘土地潜力，有利于土地价值综合提升。丰富的资源带来勃勃商机，在循环经济的辐射作用下，消费群体和消费量剧增，为该建设项目提供了必要性。3.7符合生态立市、产业强市的发展战略该项目属生态旅游循环经济，同时拉动相关产业快速发展。将成为我市可持续增长的后续产业之一，该项目以优化产业结构为核心，从整合资源入手，从而推进农业产业和产品结构调整，向市场推出生态绿色食品和旅游产品，从而推进由大变强，推进企业总体素质，提高核心竞争力，建设资源节约型、环境友好型，明显提高资源利用率，为市民创造良好的生活与工作环境，为子孙后代留下蓝天绿地。该项目以转变经济增长方式、提高经济增长质量、提高产业层次为目的；以增强产业集约能力，建立以市场为导向的生态农业发展战略。第四章策划方案4.1区址选择与资源整合4.1.1区址选择73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    以建设滨海大道快速发展环渤海经济带为契机，以开发建设北站经济带为媒介，以甜水湖自然生态景区、农业观光为支撑，项目选址在甜水湖自然生态保护区，京沈高速铁路、高速公路同305国道交汇处。保护区区域面积19.11km2。距高铁**北站1公里，距305国道4.5公里，距京沈高速公路**北站12公里，盘山新县城13公里，**市区25公里，**港70公里，沈阳桃仙两大国际机场180公里，地理位置优越，交通方便快捷。4.1.2资源整合***人口14,538人，其中朝鲜族1,644人、满回锡伯族50人。　***共有土地面积98平方公里。其中耕地为71,439.7亩、盐田4,382亩、苇田18,107亩、草地264亩、滩涂2,230亩、水库8,065亩（其中明珠岛20亩，岛上海云寺古建筑保存完好）。该地区拥有丰富的地热和温泉资源，主要蕴藏在馆陶组及下第三系、前第三系潜山储热层中，为中型地热田。距地表约1,800米，水质优良，含氯化钠、氧化钙及氯化氟等多种有益矿物质及微量元素，常年水温42度，出水量4,000立方米/小时。为生态旅游提供了温泉祛病、保健洗浴资源。4.2项目策划方案4.2.1规划定位依托滨海开发新区与**形成的环线，整合打造1个20km273personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    的自然生态观光旅游区。开发6个各具特色的生态观光项目，项目主体功能见下图：项目主体功能见下图夏泳冬滑甜水湖捕鱼垂钓游艇观湖景朝拜海云寺景区旅游明珠岛朝拜龙王庙鸟岛观景芦苇荡探险滩涂湿地湿地观光坑塘垂钓药浴果浴露天连环浴花瓣浴亲亲浴推拿按摩理疗浴泰磁疗足疗体验自然温泉儿童戏水池嬉水水床漩涡池水疗温泉水疗瑜伽馆放牧拣蛋生态畜禽摸鱼抓蟹狩猎野兔观光农业73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    观光农业-生态农业果菜采摘瓜地聊天住宿餐饮生态驿馆娱乐休闲商务论坛特色驿馆知青驿馆回忆知青生活促进经济交流品味生态食品庄园驿馆体验自然生态鲜族歌舞、美食种禽交易种畜交易农产品交易中心籽种交易生态肉禽蛋保鲜生态果菜保鲜生态稻玉米北站经济带路边景观高铁盘锦北站以最核心的资源打造最顶级的项目，六位一体，打造甜水湖自然观光生态小镇。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    借助滨海大道开发滨海地带；依托甜水湖自然景观及资源；充分利用生态水资源、有机肥资源、土地资源、开发生态种植业、养殖业。生态农业良性循环见下图淡水养殖生态鸭有机稻粪肥饲料生态猪水库辽河水水有机玉米生态鸡有机水果有机蔬菜有机肥生态农业良性循环图4.2.2实施步骤第一步：整合青年水库景区资源⑴通北站1km、通305国道4.5km、各修筑一条9m宽柏油路，路两侧安装路灯、暗排和种植花草乔木，库区围堤修4m宽的柏油路，靠湖一侧安装路灯暗排和种植花草乔木。⑵建设钢筋砼仿古式甜水湖门楼牌坊一座。⑶改扩建海云寺庙，三层殿院、三座镇庙宝塔。⑷岛上规划种植花草乔木、构建凉亭长廊供游人观赏休憩，通右侧围堤建浮桥一座。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    ⑸恢复“龙泉”水井、不干沟“海眼”原貌，配以传奇标识，让游人知晓“龙泉水不干”、“海眼通龙宫”、“庙随水涨”的传奇故事⑹改造湖面岛屿：明珠岛周边的三个孤岛改造为花鸟岛；湖右侧岛屿改造为游艇和游船码头，能停泊游艇20艘、游船30艘；湖左侧和葫芦头二岛屿改造为钓鱼岛，可供百人垂钓。在寺庙通围堤的停车场构筑标志性湿地浮雕一座，及其他旅游观光配套工程。第二步：健全景区总体休闲度假功能在对应明珠岛右岸规划2km×200m休闲度假功能服务区，中心布置广场5,000㎡、内置标志性雕塑一幅。接湖边规划20m宽的带状公园，接公园修一条9m宽的柏油路，其余180m规划旅游度假村、温泉洗浴中心、商业街、生态农产品市场。第三步：整合生态水、肥、土地资源在区域内调整产业和产品结构，种植生态水稻100公顷，生态杂粮50公顷，生态蔬菜50公顷，生态水果30公顷，淡水湖养殖水面538公顷，生态养殖放牧面积32公顷。保鲜稻谷、玉米1,400t，水果1,300t，蔬菜5,000t。依托甜水湖景和生态观光资源、地下温泉资源，打造甜水湖自然生态保护区旅游观光产品。区域内设置生态农业观光、狩猎；温泉洗浴；芦苇荡探险；孤岛观鸟；海云寺朝拜；水上游艇、荡舟、捕鱼73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    、垂钓、滑冰；生态果菜采摘区；生态畜禽养殖、放牧、新鲜禽蛋捡拾区；集贸市场采购区；知青回访区；农家旅游度假村；区域内路边设置宾馆、温泉洗浴中心、商务、通讯、餐饮娱乐功能齐全。4.2.3客户群定位主客户群定位：本市及邻市经销商，**本地及三大城市板块中商务、会议及培训等消费市场，及商务度假市场。亚客户群定位：国内临省市各类商务度假市场及旅游消费群体。4.2.4文化、特色定位以自然生态观光为主题，以地热温泉为特色，以生态食品休闲度假为品牌。4.2.5功能定位甜水湖自然保护区生态景观；明珠岛海云寺历史文物；地热温泉；观光旅游、休闲度假村；生态农业观光；**北站经济带。构筑休闲及景点六大功能于一体的综合性观光旅游项目。4.2.6档次定位：甜水湖自然生态自然保护区的湿地自然景观、映衬在闾山脚下的甜水湖明珠岛、海云寺在**市乃至中国北方实属绝无仅有，因此有必要按5A级景区打造。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    第五章项目实施方案5.1景区自然条件景区位于甜水湖自然生态保护区，区域面积19.11km2，地处京沈高速铁路、公路同305国道交汇处。借助于原青年水库和海云寺古建筑的自然景观；借助于滩涂芦苇荡的湿地自然环境，是我国北方唯一滩涂湿地、水库和古建筑融为一体的自然景观。5.1.1气象条件（1）气温：平均气温8.3℃夏季最高平均气温28.2℃冬季最低平均气温－15.7℃极端最高所温35.2℃（2）风向、主导风向：冬季东北北（NNE）夏季西南南（SSW）风速：最大（地面上10m处10min统计数字）25.7m/s平均风速：4.46m/s标准风载：70kg/m2（3）降雨量：年平均降雨量616.6mm日最大降雨量142.2mm73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    一次暴雨持续降雨量3天236.4mm5分钟最大降雨量13mm10分钟最大降雨量22.8mm（4）降雪量：最大降雪厚度150mm雪荷载：35kg/m2（5）湿度：年最热月份平均相对湿度82%年最冷月份平均相对湿度54%年平均相对湿度70.5%（6）气压：年平均大气压1,016.22毫巴最大气压1,046.20毫巴最低气压983.30毫巴5.1.2工程水文地质资料根据当地水文地质资料记载，土壤结构为亚粘土、黄土和粉砂层，地耐力为110~130Mpa，海拔标高为3.3～3.6m。5.2总图运输5.2.1地理位置、轮廓以甜水湖自然生态保护区为主体，地处京沈高速铁路、公路同305国道交汇处，区域面积19.11km2，其中库区水域面积538公顷、苇田1207公顷、草地18公顷、滩涂148公顷。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    距秦沈高铁**北站1km，距305国道4.5km。5.2.2总图布置以甜水湖、芦苇荡、滩涂、草地自然生态保护区为定位。1、甜水湖景区改造：通北站1km、通305国道4.5km各修筑一条9m宽柏油路，路两侧安装路灯、暗排和种植花草乔木。在通北站的入口处建设仿古式甜水湖牌楼一座。改造甜水湖围堤黑色路面11.5km、宽4m，靠湖一侧安装路灯、暗排和种植花草乔木。对应明珠岛围堤右岸为景区旅游度假设施功能区，长2km宽200m，占地40公顷。靠堤20m布置带状公园种植花草乔木、布置长廊、凉亭及健身器材。建设广场5,000㎡柏油路面，中央构筑标志性雕塑一幅。改扩建海云寺庙，三层殿院一座镇庙宝塔，岛上通围堤修栈桥2座。在湖面右侧岛屿建设游艇、游船码头一座，一端建设娱乐场。在水深适中地建设露天浴场一座（设有跳水台）。在葫芦头岛屿进深处建造一座大型水上九龙城；在旅游度假功能服务区配套建设温泉度假村、自然生态宾馆、庄家院驿馆：知青回访驿馆。2、生态农田改造：73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    改造库区附近农田262公顷；改造后种植生态水稻100公顷、生态杂粮50公顷、生态蔬菜50公顷、生态水果30公顷、生态养殖放牧荒草地32公顷。库区水面538公顷，功能服务区40公顷，合计840公顷。5.3项目建设内容5.3.1甜水湖景区扩建主体工程水库面积538公顷，水容积1,200万m3，可养鱼3,000万尾，可年产淡水鱼虾4.2万t。利用湖面放鸭50万只。湖左、上侧岛屿设置钓鱼台，可容纳百人垂钓。湖右侧岛屿设置趸船、浮码头，停放各类游艇20艘、游船30艘。岛的一端建设游乐场，主要功能有环湖电动车、碰碰车、电动火车、360°大篷车、旱冰场、激流勇进、迷宫、蹦蹦床、水龙宫、儿童动画宫、及其他娱乐运动器材。改造明珠岛海云寺庙，建设三层殿院一座镇庙宝塔，岛上通围堤建栈桥2座。设置观赏亭台、种植花草乔木、引养各种鸟类，湖边种植花草乔木和绿化林同时设置园艺甬道，建设格调自然生态。通北站、通305国道、围堤、广场、景区道路13.15万㎡，绕湖游配备电动车10台；右岸功能服务区景观建筑构物：景区牌楼一座；景区广场5,000㎡（含标志性雕塑一幅）；73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    布置带状公园2,000×20m面积40,000m2，构筑长廊200m记录当年水库建设、海云寺景观神奇传说、甜水地区名人轶事，构筑凉亭10个。在水深适中处建设露天浴场一座（设有跳水台）。夏泳冬滑，岸边设置捕鱼码头一座让游人尽享湖水捕鱼的乐趣。在葫芦头岛屿纵深处建造一座大型水上九龙城，集食宿、娱乐、景观、商务为一体，充分体现水上明珠特色。建造温泉度假村：配套建设1,800m温泉深井一口、室外过廊套环式温泉池、湿地温泉水上瑜伽馆、温泉水疗中心。特色驿馆：自然生态宾馆、庄家院驿馆：知青回访驿馆。5.3.2地热温泉度假城近年来，温泉经济日渐兴起，温泉旅游开发的热潮也渐渐在全国形成，以露天温泉为特色的第三代温泉产品较为普遍，旅游功能由单纯的医疗和疗养旅游发展为观光度假、康体休闲、商务会议、娱乐、休疗养等多种功能，旅游者也从特殊的群体向大众化发展，形成了同时发展康体旅游、娱乐旅游、体育旅游、商务旅游、会议旅游、旅游地产等多功能的综合性旅游度假区，温泉开发正在由汤治、保养、休养向观光、娱乐、休闲、度假转换。露天温泉特色、整体环境、温泉医疗功能；户外观光娱乐型和综合型温泉旅游地是两大游客喜好的温泉旅游地类型。以文化和休闲娱乐为特色的第四代产品逐渐深入人心，发展潜力大。过廊套环式温泉池：73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    景区温泉是稀缺资源，以适应各类群体打造泉池特色，应着重创意景色、格调和造型打造。泡池区用假山石头和热带雨林植物做景观装饰。开设天然温泉浴池、药浴池（以**湿地矿物温泉和芦苇等中药为基础，结合中医针灸、推拿、按摩等形成特色生态水疗。如：泰式磁疗SPA、浴盐按摩SPA等）、花瓣池、水果池、亲亲鱼疗池、古井温泉池、儿童戏水池等。建筑面积3000m2,采用古、现代相结合的建筑风格。木框架结构，彩钢瓦夹心苯板附设太阳能装置屋顶，彩钢夹心苯板活动密封墙体，内墙彩绘现代浪漫色彩的壁画。湿地温泉水上瑜伽馆：充分利用温泉资源，开辟瑜伽专用池，建筑面积1,500m2，3层框架结构，聘请专业瑜伽教练，成立瑜伽健身会所，推广温泉瑜伽。有温泉作为载体，湿地环境为依托，水上瑜伽可以一年四季开展。温泉水上瑜伽比任何瑜伽都更有利于健身、减肥和疗养身心。水上瑜伽特别适合老年人健身，但温泉的水温不能太热。将温泉与湿地环境与瑜伽相结合，让游客的身心一起得到深层净化。温泉水疗中心：建筑面积3,500m2，5层框架结构，开设大型水疗消闲中心，提供集中、港、泰式和香熏按摩、美容美甲、五花八门特色水疗池，如：高温按摩池、脚底按摩池、漩涡池、针浴、水床、浮浴、站浴、冰水池、维其浴、儿童池、特色鱼疗池、高温干/湿蒸气房、特色低温干蒸房等，为游客洗涤身心疲惫。温泉度假城占地面积2公顷，总建筑面积8,000m2。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    5.3.3特色驿馆甜水湖生态宾馆：建筑面积12,000m2,10层框架结构，建筑风格突出自然生态，集住宿、餐饮、娱乐、休闲于一体。庄家院驿馆：以入住农户为主体建筑面积20,000m2,单层北京平砖混结构，四合院格局。知青回访驿馆：恢复南锅青年营旧貌，增设老知青回访馆驿，青年营分3个连队，每个连队一栋宿舍一头做食堂，同时设有青年活动俱乐部，均为一层砖混结构，建筑面积720m2；驿馆为5层框架结构，建筑面积1,200m2,内收展当年老知青生活回顾、现在老知青天各一方的成长在线及名人轶事……。特色驿馆占地5公顷，总建筑面积33,920m2。5.3.4水上明珠—九龙城建筑面积3,000m2,6层框架结构，特设豪华VIP房、麻将房、多功能商务房，供客享用中西日韩式特色美食之餐饮区、自助健康水果吧、自助饮料吧，迷你私人影吧、网吧、英式桌球、开放式多功能电影厅、氧气吧、露天休息吧、聊天区、模拟游戏机、跳舞机、塔罗牌（Tarrot）、V5等等个性化的娱乐空间，吃喝玩乐尽在其中，项目占地1公顷。5.3.5商务区分别开设休闲购物街，路一侧云集中高档次的商业网点、理发店、便利商店、咖啡厅、饭店、茶馆及消费品商店。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    路另一侧设农副产品市场，向游人提供生态的大米、杂粮、蔬菜、水果；生态畜禽肉、蛋；生态水产品。生态食品检测中心监督生态食品质量、以维护消费者的利益、维护生态食品信誉。在任何时间、季节都可享用生态食品的乐趣。购物广场建筑总面积5,000m2,不同层次框架结构；生态农产品市场建筑面积10,000m2，单层、钢构轻钢结构，成为东三省的保鲜生态粮食、果菜、畜禽肉蛋的集散大市场。占地2公顷，建筑面积15,000m2。5.3.6生态有机农田改造面积230公顷，其中生态有机水稻100公顷；改造旱田种植生态有机玉米及杂粮50公顷；改造生态蔬菜园50公顷；改造果园30公顷，利用库区生态有机水；肥料选择以畜、禽粪为主（氮、钾），磷肥为辅。种子选择抗病力强、耐有机肥、营养价值高口感好产量较高的品种。选择低毒无公害的生物农药或采用电子激光杀虫。采用机械除草。预计可年产有机水稻600t；年产生态玉米及杂粮300t.有机水果1,300t，年产有机蔬菜8,000t。5.3.7生态畜、禽养殖场生态养鸭场：年养成鸭50万只，选择樱桃谷鸭和北京鸭品种，占地面积245亩，2批/年。建设养殖小区4个（318×128.4m），建筑面积6.75万m2。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    生态养鸡场：年养成鸡50万只，选择三黄鸡种，占地197亩，2批/年。建设养殖小区4个(318×103.2m),建筑面积6.75万m2。生态养猪场：年养成猪2万头，选择夏洛克、长白品种，占地80亩，建筑面积4万m2。饲料加工厂：年产饲料4万吨，其中鸡鸭饲料3.2万吨、猪饲料0.8万吨，占地20亩，建筑面积1,600m2。有机肥厂：年产有机农家肥1.2万t，其中稻田施用3,000t，杂粮田施用1,500t，果、菜田施用5,300t,外销2,200t（购买磷肥），占地30亩，建筑面积3,000m2。放牧猪、鸡及自然生青饲料面积260亩（荒草地），域内放养养野兔5千只，供冬季狩猎。生态养殖场占地55.47公顷（含荒草地17.33公顷）。5.3.8生态粮、果、菜保鲜粮、果、蔬菜储备保鲜，以保鲜储备为目的；水分流失后的粮食、水果、蔬菜不但色、味、口感退减，营养成分也相对降低，建设保鲜仓库使粮食、水果、蔬菜按不同湿度、温度要求实行恒温、恒湿控制保鲜。让人们反季吃到新鲜的粮食、水果和蔬菜。比如早熟品种的大米、暖棚的反季水果、蔬菜虽然品味欠佳，但价值却成倍增长，况且反季的暖棚果菜不能成为生态食品。可见生态保鲜食品的价值是相当可观的。年保鲜水稻400t、杂粮200t、蔬菜4,500t、水果750t项目占地1公顷，建筑面积6,000m2。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    5.3.9住宅办公区建设规划农户入住400户，预计1,500口人，其中粮食种植100户；水果栽培30户；蔬菜种植30户；畜禽水产养殖140户；其余户数及人口负责绿化及市政设施服务。采用私建公助的原则，规划占地10公顷，建筑面积32,000m2，投资2,500万元。设小区管委会及附属管理部门，规划占地1公顷，建筑面积1,500m2，投资180万元生活办公区建设规划占地11公顷，建筑面积33,500m2。5.4公用工程5.4.1供水、供暖区内的供水供暖提取地热温泉水，提水量4,000m3/h，最高用水量50m3/h，最低用水量10m3/h，出水温度42℃，供饮用水外，通过供暖再循环到温泉洗浴。5.4.2排水畜禽场的污水和区内的生活污水经排水管道收集到北站污水厂，经处理达标后统一排到排水总干。5.4.3供电供电由甜水农电所10kv输变电线路统一供电，区内变压器总容量2,000KVA，估算平均用电量为350kw/h。5.4.4通讯信息通讯信息网络由甜水电讯支局提供，容量可满足区内使用。5.5建设项目投资估算（见下表）。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    表5-1建设项目投入估算表单位：万元序号项目名称占地(公顷)建筑面积（m2）投资（万元）建设周期备注一生态农业调整、改造285.42205367900一期工程1有机稻、玉米、杂粮1505002010~2011农机水利2生态果、菜种植8024002010~2011自动喷灌、果苗3生态养鸭（50万只）166796813252010~20112批/年4生态养鸡（50万只）136796811702010~20112批/年5生态养猪（2万头）58000012502010~2011240天出栏6饲料厂(4万吨/年)1.416007502010~20117有机肥厂（1.2万吨）230005002010~2011含沼气池8青饲料及放牧场1852010放野兔5千只二景区建设（不含库区设施）4030002270一期工程1景区牌楼1202010~20112扩改建海云寺及栈桥300015002010~2011主配殿、塔、亭3露天娱乐场21252010~2011含设备4游艇码头及栈桥602010~2011含趸船、浮码头5露天游泳场（含跳水台）452010~2011冬季为滑冰场6带状公园4400003622010~2011亭、廊花草乔木7景区广场0.55000502010~2011含标志性浮雕8钓鱼台82010~201140个三设备配置470一期工程1电瓶车1210台2游艇2006~15m=20艘3木浆船135~8m=30艘4变、配电设施2452000KVA变压器四功能区建设994208980二期工程1地热温泉度假城2800015002011~2012含地热深井2特色驿馆53392045002011~20123餐饮娱乐城130004002011~20124商业购物及农贸市场21500015002011~20125粮果菜储鲜区160009002011~20126小区住宅及办公11335001802011~2012为办公房投资五辅助工程5260一期工程地热供暖站0.5100012002011~2012（11000米）变电所0.5120015002010~2011道路12500010002010~2011绿化12800002402011~2012不含原有通讯信息工程1202010~2011供排水12002009~201073personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    六项目前期及预备费用120合计410.832515625000项目建设总投资25,000万元；其中景区建设投资17,100万元，生态农业改造投资7,900万元；一期工程投资16,020万元，二期工程投资8,980万元。5.6项目收益估算见下表表5-2单位：万元序号项目单位数量单价/元金额成本备注一生态农业34830151021保鲜有机稻t60030001801082苇、稻田养蟹t30020000600200稻田蟹60t3保鲜杂粮t30020006040以玉米为主4保鲜蔬菜t8000150012007205保鲜水果t130030003902346生态鸭万只5030150011007生态鸡万只304012009008生态鸡蛋t25001000025001300蛋鸡20万只9生态猪头2000016003200250010淡水鱼t300008000240008000二观光旅游3485145011驿馆收入床31005500170590012旅游收入万人8604808013温泉收入万人610060012014餐饮娱乐收入万人510050020015商业收入200150合计3831516552项目运营后年实现销售收入38,315万元/年，生产运营费用16,552万元/年。第六章环境保护73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    6.1设计依据、原则及目标6.1.1设计依据《中华人民共和国环境空气质量标准》（GB3095—1996）《中华人民共和国城市区域环境噪声标准》（GB3096—93）《中华人民共和国大气污染物综合排放标准（GB16297-1996）《中华人民共和国污水综合排放标准》（GB8978-96）；6.1.2环境保护目标将生态旅游景区建设成为空气清新、环境优雅、水体清洁、景观优美、生态平衡的绿色景区。实行环保与经济建设同步持续发展。1、空气质量环境空气质量达到国家GB3095-1996一类地区中的二级标准。2、地面水质量地面水环境标准达到环境质量一类区三类标准。3、环境噪音环境噪声分贝五类地区，要求全面达到国家GB3096-93标准中二类地区二类标准（昼夜40～45dB,夜间35～40dB）4、固体废弃物生活垃圾无害化处理率大于95%，主要有害废弃物无害化处理率达到100%5、生态保护覆盖率100%。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    6.1.3环境保护原则1、与自然和谐共存原则生态旅游景区应与区域自然生态系统相结合，保持尽可能多的生态功能。在基础设施建设及规划中最大限度地降低公共中心区对局地景观和水文背景、区域生态系统造成的影响。2、生态效率原则在基础设施、建筑物构造过程中，按照“三同时”原则，应全面实施清洁建设，尽可能降低资源消耗和废物产生；在建筑材料、能源使用、产品和服务中，鼓励利用可再生资源和可重复利用资源。3、区域发展原则尽可能将生态旅游景区与地方特色经济相结合，将景区建设与区域生态环境综合整治相结合，并与区域环境保护规划方案相协调。4、高科技、高效益原则大力采用现代化生物技术、生态技术、节能技术、节水技术、再循环技术和信息技术，采纳国际上先进的生产过程管理和环境管理标准，要求经济效益和环境效益实现最佳平衡，实现“双赢”．5、软硬件并重原则73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    硬件指具体工程项目的建设，软件包括景区环境管理体系的建立、信息支持系统的建设等，在进行硬件建设同时必须建立和完善软件建设，使公共中心区得到健康、持续发展。6.2环境现状及环境影响因素分析6.2.1环境现状1、水环境质量甜水湖水域来自上游大伙房水库水质无污染。2、空气环境质量项目区域主要空气污染源来自于当地居民炉灶烟气，空气质量良好。3、固体废弃物生活固体废弃物包括生活垃圾和畜禽粪便，目前均为有效处理（全部用于生产生态有机肥）。4、声环境质量当地噪声来主要为道路交通类噪声，基本上没有形成噪声公害。6.2.2环境影响因素分析1、项目施工期项目建设过程中，场地平整、掘土、地基深层处理及土石方、建筑材料运输、设备装配等施工行为，在一定时段内都将会对周围环境造成一定影响。⑴材料及土石方运输车辆噪声；73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    ⑵现场施工噪声；⑶运输车辆的汽车尾气及燃油机械排放的燃油废气；⑷施工中土方挖掘、平整场地以及装载运输产生的二次扬尘；⑸施工作业产生的生活污水；⑹挖掘土方等产生的固体废弃物；⑺施工现场周围的景观影响。由上面分析可以看出，施工期对周围大气环境的影响主要是地面扬尘污染，污染因子为TSP。这种污染影响是暂时的，可逆的，工程一结束，污染影响也就随之而停止。清理土地、挖掘地基、挖土和填土操作过程中产生的尘埃排放物，会在短期内大大影响当地的空气质量。粉尘排放量随施工作业的活动水平、特定操作和主导天气的不同每天变化很大，而且很大一部分是由于在施工现场临时修筑的道路上，车辆往来行驶所引起的。2、项目建成后污染分析⑴废气景区建成后废气主要有饭店厨间烟气和车辆尾气，废气污染物主要有烟尘、SO2和油烟等。⑵废水污水中的主要的污染物有：COD、BOD等有机物。⑶废渣景区建成后，其排放的主要固体污染物有畜禽粪便和生活垃圾。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    6.3环境保护防治规划6.3.1施工期间污染处理措施施工期间比较明显的环境问题主要有三点：一是施工机械及运输车辆产生的噪声；二是施工中平整场地、混凝土运输搅拌等作业产生的地面扬尘；三是施工期间的生活污水。1、施工机械运行时的噪声辐射源强在75～115dB（A）范围内，距离声源30米范围内的噪声辐射值超过建筑施工景区界噪声限制标准，如果施工机械放置位置距离边界较近，施工时应采取适当的隔声措施。2、对于施工期间产生的扬尘，在不同的施工环节采取不同的措施，力争使其对环境的污染降至最低。扬尘严重时实行洒水作业，汽车驶出工地要对轮胎进行清洗，防止泥土带入观光区。3、施工期间产生的生活污水，要加强管理，污水实行统一收集、排至北站污水处理厂，防止对周围环境的污染。6.3.2运行期间1、废气治理该项目采用地热采暖，养殖场的畜禽粪便通过喷洒EMP生物处理液把恶臭强度控制在10～20之间（50m之内）。加强货运车辆扬尘的监测和防治工作，在道路上逐步限制不符合运输标准的车辆通行。加强对汽车尾气的监测和防治，淘汰尾气排放不合格的车辆。推广使用无铅汽油。2、水污染防治73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    污水排出均需经过初级处理，再进入市政管道。实行污染排放许可证制度和排放总量控制制度，加强对各排污单位的监督管理。建设污水统一排放体制，生活污水处理率达到100%。推行节约用水的奖励措施，逐步实行定额用水制度，规划建设中水处理设施，提高水的重复利用率。3、噪声污染整治合理调整交通设施布局，科学组织路网系统，提高道路的质量等级，解决车辆的疏散问题，减低道路的车辆密度，有效地分流区内、外部和过境交通，降低交通噪声。加强景观区和游客中心区的噪声管理，对施工噪声的管理要从严控制。4、固体废弃物治理加强游客生活及景点遗留垃圾的处理和综合利用，鼓励并推广垃圾综合利用技术，畜禽粪生产沼气后再生产有机农肥，固体废弃物综合利用率达到100%。5、环境卫生设施旅游观光区的公共厕所按每平公里不少于3座设置，公厕间距为800-1,000m，积极推广生态公厕。沿景区道路布置垃圾箱，其间距为：游客中心50m，景点区道路100m。6.3.3环境监督管理73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    1、按照《中华人民共和国环境影响评价法》，对规划区进行环境影响评价，确定排放总量。2、集中污水处理，积极推行清洁生产运营，实现废水减量化；促进废水循环利用和综合利用，实现废水资源化；加大投入，加快废水资源化和处理设施建设；4、进水水质和达标污水管网入网水质两级在线IC卡智能检测；5、组织污染事故调查组，制定污染赔偿制度；6、进区项目要完善环保检测制度。第七章节能节水和消防7.1节能节水73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    7.1.1节能措施1、设计依据项目设计依据按国家发改委、国家经贸委、建设部文件：《关于固定资产投资工程项目可行性研究报告“节能篇（章）”编制及评估的规定》计交能（1997）2542号《民用建筑节能设计标准》（JGJ-26-95）。2、主要设计原则执行国家现行的节约能源的政策、指令、规定及有关标准，合理利用能源，降低能源消耗，提高经济效益。能源选择以贯彻国家能源方针和因地制宜为原则。设计中所选设备采用国家推荐的节能产品，严禁采用国家规定淘汰的低效高耗能设备。3、节能措施在基础设施建设阶段，在供电、供热、道路建设、路灯安装等方面优先选用节能新技术、新工艺、新材料及新设备。其中，供、配电设计符合《评价企业合理用电导则》（GB/T3485-1998）的有关规定，优先采用低压电容器作为无功功率补偿，以降低无功损耗；供热管道采用保温性能好、热量运输散失小的高性能管材；路灯安装选用节能灯具。7.1.2节水措施1、设计依据73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    《建设项目水资源论证管理办法》国家计委和水利部颁布；《评价企业合理用水技术通则》(GB/T9711—1993)。2、节水措施项目为基础设施建设项目，耗水量较小，在项目基础设施建设阶段，采取以下节水措施：⑴在基础设施规划中，注重节约用水和水的重复利用。根据景区的发展需要，污水排至北站污水处理厂，污水处理率达到90％以上。为了有效降低对新鲜水的消耗量，提高水利用效率，给水采用分质供水，采用新鲜淡水和杂用水两套系统，污水回用率45%。经过污水处理的后污水主要用于用于建筑内冲厕用水，以及建筑施工、绿地和道路的浇洒、洗车等对水质要求不高的生活外用水。大大降低新鲜水用量。⑵树立施工人员节水意识，在项目建设调度会上将节水作为项目建设的主要内容，积极宣传普及有关生态建设、节约用水的知识、政策和法律，使广大施工人员树立节水意识，明确自己在生态建设和节约用水方面的权利和义务。⑶在给排水规划中，积极引入用水循环，注重中水工程建设，同时在给排水管材的选择及相关配件上采用性能好的设备，严防滴漏水现象。⑷在工作和生活区内采用节水型卫生器具，实现工艺冷却水的循环回收利用。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    7.2消防工程7.2.1消防工程规划原则1、遵循“预防为主、防消结合”的方针，以全面安排、有利生产、保障安全为出发点，做好园区防火规划和灭火设施的规划建设。2、加强景区消防基础设施建设，发展消防科技，努力消除火险隐患。3、增强消防意识，积极推进消防工作社会化，严格执行有关消防规范、规定和标准。4、城区消防规划应与交通、给水、燃料、电力、电信等规划相衔接，坚持近远期结合，统一规划，同步建设。7.2.2工程措施1、合理划分消防责任区并设置消防队(站)根据总图布置与功能结构，景区消防应规范合理规划设计。2、消防通道消防通道路中心线间距不宜超过160米。消防通道不得小于4米。新建的交叉路口，道路转弯半径不宜小于15米，以利消防车通行。3、消防供水73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    消火栓设置：管网上布置地下式室外消火栓。室外消火栓应沿道路设置，并宜靠近十字路口。消火栓距路边不应超过2m，距房屋外墙不宜小于5m。室内外消火药味栓的间距不应超过120m。4、消防通讯消防通讯主要应保障火灾报警和灭火指挥调度迅速、准确可靠，要充分利用无线和有线两种通信手段，完善消防通信系统。7.2.3防震地区很少发生地震，震级都在6级以下，一般建筑按7度设防，生命线系统工程和地震发生后易发生二次灾害的建筑、高层建筑及重要建筑应根据抗震评价进行抗震设计。（四）防洪结合水系景观等进行河道改造。建设时应严格避免将河道盖板成暗渠，亦不宜将河道修成呆板的混凝土岸壁，应最大限度的利用地形优势，做成自然堤岸。加强水土保持，充分考虑洪水等自然灾害对景区的影响；充分重视天文潮、风暴潮对景区的影响，保证游客安全。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    第八章项目组织管理与实施进度计划8.1建设项目组织机构项目批复后，组建小区管委会，下设招商部、生态农业管理部、旅游管理部、物业部、财务综合部，设小区管委会主任、副主任各1人，财务部招商部设两人其他各部设1人，共9人。负责小区的规划建设、招商引资、投资商入住手续、生态农业管理、农业观光旅游管理、和小区的物业管理。8.2项目工程设计管理8.2.1建设项目工程设计管理1、工程设计管理的目的工程设计管理的目标是：安全可靠、适用和经济性，以保障建设项目的质量、进度和投资三大控制目标的实现。2、工程设计管理的意义工程设计要贯穿工程建设的全过程。因此，项目办公室应对工程设计过程进行管理，中心任务是对设计的工程质量、进度、投资进行控制。应由项目办公室负责提供设备资料和外部协作条件，应及时向设计单位提供准确的资料。8.2.2工程设计招投标项目办公室以招标承包方式委托工程勘察和工程设计任务73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    的目的，打破地区、部门的界限，开展工程勘察、设计竞争，优选工程勘察设计单位，促使工程勘察设计单位改进管理工作、提高工作质量、改善服务态度，达到采用先进技术、降低工程造价、缩短建设周期和提高投资效益的目的。8.2.3工程设计外部协作条件管理(1)环境影响及评价：环境影响评价、生态环境自然保护许可、生态环境影响评价。(2)水源、电源供应线路、方式、指标。(3)集散条件：交通储运、站场等设施。(4)外部配套条件：热、气、汽等供应及输出接口。8.2.4工程设计过程的管理1、工程设计过程管理的目的在保证设计质量、进度条件下，以较低工程投资设计方案向业主提交符合标准、适用、便于实施、能满足使用功能与效益的设计成果，评价设计质量的最终标准是建设项目的功能和效益。2、工程设计过程管理的目标控制1)从建设项目的条件和投资效益出发，控制设计的功能满足使用要求、符合标准，设计方案和工程投资既要符合投资效益最大化，又要为施工创造条件，符合法规、规定和政策的规定。2)控制工程设计标准和设计工程质量及设计文件质量。3)控制工程设计进度，满足建设项目工期与进度的要求。4)控制设计方案的经济性，降低建设项目的总投资。8.3项目招投标项目建设采取公开招标方式，选取资质高、造价合理，信誉73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    好的施工单位施工，以确保项目能够高质量、低成本、按期完成。工程概况工程名称、招标人建筑面积、结构前期手续计划批文、建设用地规划许可证、资金证明、建设工程规划许可证、报建申请书、规划定位图、施工图企业法人的营业执照、开发企业资质证书招标建设工程（施工）招标备案登记表招标代理单位委托代理合同招标方式：公开发布招标公告（5天）邀请投标邀请书制订招标文件（20天）确定投标单位：审核投标单位的资质证书、营业执照、安全生产许可证、项目经理证施工企业报送投标申请书投标按照招标文件召开揭标会投标单位报送投标文件开标、评标、定标开标确定评标专家进行评标确定中标人公示上网公示3天中标通知书签发中标通知书工程合同双方签订施工合同图8-1建设工程招投标工作流程图8.4建设项目合同与管理73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    8.4.1建设项目合同根据建设项目的特点和国家及省、市的有关法律和规范，制定建设工程施工合同审批流程图如下图8-2。施工合同审批所需资料：1、        法人企业营业执照2、        建筑企业资质证书3、        中标通知书4、        完费证明5、        法人代表证明书6、        6、法人授权委托证明书7、        委托代理人签约资格证书8、        建筑意外伤害保险投保手续9、        法律、法规规定的其它材料受理审批资料备案图8-2建设工程施工合同审批流程图8.4.2建设项目合同管理73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    建设项目合同管理是以建设项目的计划工期、规定的技术标准和质量要求以及批准概算等为项目管理的控制目标，以合同为管理依据，项目办公室通过合同的订立和履行过程中所进行的计划、组织、指挥、监督和协调等工作，促使项目管理的各部门、各环节相互衔接、密切配合，在实现项目预定目标的前提下达到最优的结果，使项目验收合格并发挥预定功能。8.5进度计划（项目分两期建设）第一期工程（见表5-1）内容：生态农业调整改造、景区扩建改造、设备配置、公用工程。工期：2010年4月开工到2011年12月竣工。第二期工程（见表5-2）内容：功能服务区建设工期：2011年3月开工到2012年11月竣工。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    第九章风险分析与控制9.1风险分析本项目为生态农业开发与生态观光旅游综合项目，生态农业综合开发的风险主要表现为：畜禽养殖防疫；病虫害防治；洪水灾害；消费者对保鲜生态食品消费价值的认可。生态观光旅游的风险主要表现为：对旅游观光项目的选择和认可；消费价值的比较；淡季的平衡。9.2风险控制9.2.1生态农业风险控制洪水控制:据气象部门提供的资料表明，洪水的间隔周期为10年，特大洪水的间隔周期为50年以上。另据**防洪设施分析，现役的防洪设施，完全可以抵御一般洪水和特大洪水。病虫害控制：近代的农业种植业，多以化学农药杀灭病虫害，致使害虫产生很大的抗药性，导致施药量逐年增大，生态农业以其自然的生态环境、生物农药和激光杀虫完全可以防治病虫害。畜禽防疫：严格执行《中华人民共和国动物防疫法》和《动物检疫操作规范》实行近亲种群隔离，鸡鸭的间隔距离为500m，种鸡种鸭的间隔距离为1000m，同时设置规范的防护沟，按规范制定疫病扑救措施。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    消费者对生态食品的消费认可：在第二章市场调查一节中可以看出，人们期盼着货真价实的生态食品，人们需要健康远离疾病，生态食品是将来普及的必然，回到自然生态的怀抱就在不远的将来！9.2.2观光旅游风险控制一般性质的旅游季节性比较强，本地区淡季占5个月，本项目以自然地热温泉开发和养殖业观光为特色，规避了淡季带来的风险，同时也带来了淡季特色和收获—温泉浴、滑冰、冰下拉网捕鱼、围猎野兔、观光生态畜禽饲养和放牧、禽舍捡蛋、品味现宰现做的庄园热炕、知青人文，东北地区生态、保鲜农副产品大市场。第十章投资估算与资金筹措73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    10.1编制说明甜水湖自然生态保护区建设项目占地19.11km，其投资估算内容主要包括：生态农田改造；畜禽养殖场建设；明珠岛海云寺及配套设施扩建；景区配套工程建设；公用工程建设，整个计算期为11年。10.2投资估算10.2.1编制依据及方法按照辽宁省2008年工程预算定额及相关取费，材料、设备价格按2010年1季度现行价格。建筑工程费用按其结构形式及使用功能，结合当地建筑安装同类工程标准，按平方米造价指标估算。种畜禽、籽种、果苗费用参考省内前三年平均价。设备运杂费和设备安装费用按行业标准估算；10.2.2投资估算投资总额：为基本建设投资总额＋全部流动资金。项目建设总投资25,000万元，其中固定资产投资19,420万元，其它递延及无形资产5,580万元，流动资金450万元（生态农业）按行业类比法估算。10.3资金筹措地方自筹15,000万元，申请银行贷款10,000万元。第十一章财务评价73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    11.1生产成本及费用估算11.1.1材料、水、电等耗量及单价（见下表）表11-1单位：万元序号项目单价（元）年耗量年成本一原辅材料、籽种、种畜禽、果苗165521生态农业151022观光旅游及其他1450二能耗2201电6000/万kw307万kw1842水2/万m318万m336合计1677211.1.2生产定员及职工工资：本项目定员100人，年人工资及福利费按1.2万元/人。年估算工资总额120万元。11.1.3固定资产折旧折旧年限：土建按20年计算；设备按10年计算。残值率：土建按5%计算；设备按10%计算。年折旧额为942万元。11.1.4修理费土建按折旧额的30%计取，设备按折旧额的50%计取，年修理费用为362万元。11.1.5摊销费；从达产期计算按10年摊销，年摊销费558万元。11.1.6其它费用：年其它生产费用估算为200万元。11.2财务分析11.2.1销售收入和年销售税金及附加的估算73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    表11-2单位：万元序号生产项目单位数量单价（元）销售额1生态农业348302观光旅游3485合计38315年销售收入为38,315万元，年销售税金及附加按国家规定计取，正常年份年销售税及附加为3,600万元。11.2.2利润总额及分配：正常年份年利润总额为15,761万元，所得税按利润总额的25%计取(扣除农业部份)，正常年份所得税3,940万元，税后净利润11,821万元。11.2.3财务盈利能力分析（1）根据财务现金流量，计算出投资回收期为2.1年（所得税后）财务净现值：I=8%时=73,691万元；财务内部收益率93.5%；（2）根据损益表可计算出下列指标：投资利润率=63%；投资利税率=77%；11.2.4盈亏平衡分析以生产能力利用率表示的盈亏平衡点，其计算公式为:1820BEP=×100%=10.35%＜70%。38315－17134－3600计算结果表明，该项目只要达到设计能力的10.35%，企业就可以保本，由此可见，该项目风险较小。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    第十二章综论该项目建成后，为**市旅游增添了新的亮点，与鼎翔苇海蟹滩、鸟乐园、太平河风光带；与**红海滩、**湿地游；与知青之旅、河蟹文化之旅、石油工业之旅、稻米文化之旅等旅游线路，形成了比较完善的旅游系统，具有很好的社会效益。1、该项目适应了旅游产业结构优化调整的客观要求，是旅游开发形式转型的新探索，推进了现代旅游业和现代农业的发展，不仅拓宽了旅游资源开发的路径，而且把旅游、农业、新农村建设有机结合起来，加快了结构调整，提升和丰富了旅游的内涵，减少了旅游开发的投资风险，迎合了大众消费心理。2、该项目可促进农业产业结构的优化改变。旅游业具有极强的关联带动作用，开发农业旅游，向二、三产业交叉渗透深，对第三产业带动作用强。同时充分开发利用了农村丰裕的空间资源和众多的家事活动、传统文化、风俗等无形资产，所需资金少，不但可缓解农村非农化过程中资金不足的矛盾，而且可增强农民的商品意识，农民调整农业产业结构的主动性加快，农产品的变现速度加快。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    3、该项目可以创造就业机会，增加农民收入，缩小城乡差距，加快脱贫和新农村建设步伐。积极开发农业旅游，不仅可以有效地解决农村富裕劳动人口的就业问题（旅游业每增加1个就业机会，就能带来相关行业5个就业机会），缓解社会压力，而且扩大了农产品销售市场，实现农业的多项、多次增值，为传统农业向“高效生态农业”与旅游完美结合拓出新路子、找到农民增收的新的增长点，有利于城乡差距缩小。4、该项目可以促进农村基础设施建设，加强城乡交流，提高农村生活质量与品位。项目开发不但加快了基础设施建设进程，提升了农村生活质量，而且增强城乡交流，加快观念更新、提升品位、推动进步。5、该项目可以加强生态环境保护与建设，有利于农村经济社会可持续发展。开发农业旅游的生产素材是当地人与自然和谐共生的乡村环境，因此对加快生态建设、农地保护、规范开发、资源永续利用力度大，有利于促进及农村经济社会可持续发展。6、该项目可以缓解假日高峰旅游压力，促进城乡消费。不但可以有效地对部分旅游者进行分流，就近带动消费者，同时也提高了游客的游览体验质量，丰富城乡人民的消费及文化生活。7、该项目以**沿海湿地旅游环线、北站经济带为媒介，以整合生态农业为支撑，以开发建设观光旅游区为动力，促进生态农业产业化经营与第三产业的链接，开发建设甜水湖自然生态保护区，开发生态旅游项目及相关产业，倡导环保理念，发展循环经济，充分挖掘土地潜力，有利于土地价值综合提升。8、项目建成后，可实现销售收入38,315万元，可实现税后利润11,821万元，投资回收期2.1年，财务内部收益率为93.5%。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield     personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    该项目具有很好的经济效益和社会效益，建议建设单位抓紧建设实施。73personifythevanishingaristocracyoftheSouth,stillmaintainingablackservantandbeingruthlessbetrayedbyamoneymakingYankee.Sometimesapartofacharacter’sbodyoranattributemayconveysymbolicmeaning,forexample,abalefuleyeinEdgarAllanPoe’s“TheTell-TaleHeart.” 4.Symbolusedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact Anotherkindofsymbolcommonlyemployedinworksoffictionisthesymbolicact:anactoragesturewithlargersignificancethanitsliteralmeaning.CaptainAhabinMelville’sMoby-Dickdeliberatelysnapshistobaccopipeandthrowsitawaybeforesettingoutinpursuitofthehugewhale,agesturesuggestingthatheisdeterminedtotakehisrevengeandwillletnothingtodistracthimfromit.Anothertypicalsymbolicactistheburningofthebarnbytheboy’sfatherinFaulkner’s“BarnBurning”:itisanactofnomeredestroyingabarn,butanexpressionofhisprofoundspiteandhatredtowardsthatclassofpeoplewhohavedrivenhisfamilyoutofhisland.Hishatredextendstoanythinghedoesnotpossesshimselfand,beyondthat,burningabarnreflectsthefather’smemoriesofthe“wasteandextravaganceofwar”andthe“elementoffirespoketosomedeepmainspring”inhisbeing. 5.Asymbolisatrope Inabroadliterarysense,asymbolisatropethatcombinesaliteralandsensuousqualitywithannecessaryorsuggestiveaspect.However,inliterarycriticismitisnecessarytodistinguishsymbolfromimage,metaphor,and,especially,allegory. Animage Animageisaliteralandconcreterepresentationofasensoryexperienceorofanobjectthat canbeknownbyoneormoreofthesenses.Itisthemeansbywhichexperienceinitsrichnessandemotionalcomplexityiscommunicated.(HolmanandHarmon,AHandbooktoLiterature,1986)Imagesmaybeliteralorfigurative,aliteralimagebeingonethatinvolvesnonecessarychangeorextensionintheobviousmeaningofthewords.Proseworksareusuallyfullofthiskindofimage.Forexample,novelsandstoriesbyConardandHemingwayarenotedfortheevocativepoweroftheirliteralimages.Afigurativeimageisonethatinvolvesa“turn”ontheliterarymeaningofthewords.Forexample,inthelines“Itisabeauteousevening,calmandfree;/Theholytimeisquietasanun,”thesecondlineishighlyfigurativewhilethefirstlineevokesaliteralimage.Weconsideranimage,whetherliteralorfigurative,tohaveaconcretereferentintheobjectiveworldandtofunctionasimagewhenitpowerfullyevokesthatreferent;whereasasymbolfunctionslikeanimagebutdiffersfromitingoingbeyondtheevocationoftheobjectivereferentbymakingthatreferentsuggesttothereaderameaningbeyonditself.Inotherwords,asysmbolisanimagethatevokesanobjective,concretereality,butthenthatrealitysuggestsanotherlevelofmeaningdirectly;itevokesanobjectthatsuggeststhemeaning,withtheemphasisbeinglaidonthelatterpart.AsColeridgesaid,“Itpartakesoftherealitywhichitrendersintelligible. Metaphor Ametaphorisanimpliedanalogyimaginativelyidentifyingoneobjectwithanotherandascribingtothefirstobjectoneormoreofthequalitiesofthesecond,orinvestingthefirstwithemotionalorimaginativequalitiesassociatedwiththesecond.Itisnotanuncommonliteracydeviceinfiction,thoughitismorecommonlyusedinpoetrywhilesimileismorecommonlyusedinprose.Ametaphoremphasizesrichsuggestivenessinthedifferencesbetweenthethingscomparedandtherecognitionofsurprisingbutunsuspectedsimilarities.CleanthBrooksusestheterm“functionalmetaphor”todescribethewayinwhichthemetaphorisabletohave“referential”and“emotive”characteristics,andtogobeyondthosecharacteristicstobecomeadirectmeansinitselfofrepresentingatruthincommunicablebyothermeans.Whenametaphorperformsthisfunction,itisbehavingasasymbol.Butasymboldiffersfromametaphorinthatametaphorevokesanobjectinordertoillustrateanideaordemonstrateaquality,whereasasymbolembodiestheideaorthequality. Allegory Anallegoryisastoryinwhichpersons,places,actions,andthingsareequatedwithmeanings thatlieoutsideofthestoryitself.Thusitrepresentsonethingintheguiseofanother—anabstractionintheformofaconcreteimage.AclearexampleistheoldArabfableofthefrogandscorpion,whomeonedayonthebankoftheNile,whichtheybothwantedtocross.Thefrogofferedtoferrythescorpionoveronhisback,providedthescorpionpromisednottostinghim.Thescorpionagreedsolongasthefrogwouldpromisenottodrownhim.Themutualpromiseexchanged,theycrossedtheriver.Onthefarbankthescorpionstungthefrogmortally.“Whydidyoudothat?”croakedthefrog,ashelaydying.“Why?”repliedthescorpion.“We’rebothArabs,aren’twe?”Ifwesubstituteforthefroga“Mr.Goodwill”andforthescorpion“Mr.Treachery”or“Mr.Two-face”,andwemaketheriveranyriver,andfor“We’rebothArabs”wesubstitute“We’rebothmen,”wecanmakethefableintoanallegory.Inasimpleallegory,charactersandotheringredientsoftenstandforotherdefinitemeanings,whichareoftenabstractions.Wehavemetsuchacharacterinthelastchapter:FaithinHawthorne’s“YoungGoodmanBrown.”AclassicalallegoryisthemedievalplayEveryman,whoseprotagonistrepresentsusall,andwho,desertedbyfalsefriendsnamedKinddredandGoods,facesthejudgmentofGodaccompaniedonlybyafaithfulfriendcalledGoodDeeds.InJohnBunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,theprotagonist,Christian,strugglesalongthedifficultroadtowardssalvation,meetingalongthewaywithsuchpersonsasMr.WorldlyWiseman,whodirectshimintoacomfortablepath(awrongturn),andtheresidentofatowncalledFairSpeech,amongthemahypocritenamedMr.Facing-both-ways.OnemoderninstanceisGeorgeOrwell’sAnimalFarm,inwhich(amongitsdoublemeanings)barnyardanimalsstandforhumanvictimsandtotalitarianoppressors.Allegoryattemptstoevokeadualinterest,oneintheevents,characters,andsettingpresented,andtheotherintheideastheyareintendedtoconveyorthesignificancetheybear.Symboldiffersfromallegory,accordingtoColeridge,inthatinallegorytheobjectivereferentevokesiswithoutvalueuntilitacquiresfixedmeaningfromitsownparticularstructureofideas,whereasasymbolincludespermanentobjectivevalue,independentofthemeaningsthatitmaysuggest. Inabroadsense,allstoriesaresymbolic,thatis,thewriterlendsthecharactersandtheiractionssomespecialsignificance.Ofcourse,thisistothinkofsymbolinanextremelybroadandinclusiveway.Fortheusualpurposeofreadingastoryandunderstandingit,thereisprobablylittlepointinlookingforsymbolismineveryword,ineverystickorstone,ineverystrikingfoamatch,ineveryminorcharacter.Buttorefusetothinkaboutthesymbolicmeaningswouldbeanotherwaytomisreadastory.Sotobeonthealertforsymbolswhenreadingfictionisperhapswiserthantoignorethem. How,then,dowerecognizeasymbolinfictionwhenwemeetit?Fortunately,thestorytelleroftengivensthesymbolparticularemphasis.Itmaybementionedrepeatedlythroughoutthestory;itmayevenbeindicatedinthetitle(“Araby,”“BarnBurning,”“AClean,Well-LightedPlace”).Attimes,acrucialsymbolwillopenastoryorendit.Unlessanobject,act,orcharacterisgivensomespecialemphasisandimportance,wemaygenerallyfeelsafeintakingitatfacevalue.Butanobject,anact,oracharacterissurelysymbolicif,whenwefinishthestory,werealizethatitwasthatburningofabarn—whichledustothetheme,theessentialmeaningofthestory. ChapterEightImage Theimageisseenasbeingoneoftwothings:somethingthatrepresentsathinginthe“real”world;somethingisseenasitsownthing,divorcedfromtheburdenofrepresentinganythingotherthanitself. WhatIsImage? “An‘image’isthatwhichrepresentsanintellectualandemotionalcomplexinaninstantoftime.”(EzraPound) InaStationoftheMetro Theapparitionofthesefacesinthecrowd; Petalsonawet,blackbough. 地铁车站 人群粉面幽灵 黝湿枝头花瓣 Imagery,arathervaguecriticaltermcoveringthoseusesoflanguageinaliteraryworkthatevokesense—impressionsbyliteralorfigurativereferencetoperceptibleor‘concrete’objects,scenes,actions,orstates,asdistinctfromthelanguageofabstractargumentorexposition. Theimageryofaliteraryworkthuscomprisesthesetofimagesthatituses;theseneednotbemental‘pictures’,butmayappealtosensesotherthansight. Imagessuggestingfurthermeaningsandassociationsinwaysthatgobeyondthefairlysimpleidentificationsofmetaphorandsimileareoftencalledsymbols. TheFiveSensesRespondingtoImaginativelanguage VisualImagery:ImageryofSight Visualimageryisdifferentfromvisualperceptionbecausevisualperceptionrequirestheobjecttobeactuallypresentandvisualimagerydoesnot. AuralImagery:ImageryofSound Auditoryimageryissomethingthatrepresentsasound,whichcanberevealedbothinpoemsandstories. OlfactoryImagery:ImageryofSmell Olfactoryimagerystimulatesthesenseofsmell,whicholfaction’suniquecognitivearchitectureofevocationhaveledsometoconcludethatthereisnocapacityforolfactoryimagery. a.Self-reportsofolfactorycanresemblethoseobtainedforactualperception. b.Imaginganodorcanproduceeffectssimilartoactualperception. c.Olfactoryperceptionandmemory—basedimagescaninteract. 4.TactileImagery:ImageryofTouch Tactileimagerystimulatesthesenseoftouch,whichisalsocalledHapticImagery. 5.GustatoryImagery:ImageryofTaste Gustatoryimagerystimulatesthesenseoftaste. “‘Haveadillpickle,’hesaid.Hewantedtosharewithus:Thatseemedtomesoright,so—youknowwhatImean?” FromADillPicklebyKatherineMansfield    '