【英语论文】大学英语教学中的文化导入研究Culture Teaching in College English Program.doc 50页

'大学英语教学中的文化导入研究CultureTeachinginCollegeEnglishProgram研究生姓名学号导师姓名系所外国语学院英语系专业英语语言文学研究方向入学时间毕业时间 摘要语言是文化的载体和表现形式。语言离不开文化，文化又存在于语言之中。英语教学应当包括英语文化教学。如果在英语教学中只重视语言知识的教育而忽视文化教育，其结果使培养出来的学生不可能真正掌握英语知识，跨文化交际能力也无从谈起。文化教育是实现运用语言进行交际的关键，语言的得体性离不开社会文化知识。因此要加强英语教师对文化教育重要性的认识，从而培养学生具备较强的跨文化交际能力。本论文内容是关于在外语教学课堂中文化教学的作用以及如何导入的问题。本论文将对于为什么以及如何进行文化教学做一些思考。文中将指出外语教学并非等同于教授语法结构或学习新词汇与短语，也需要导入一些文化因素，这些文化因素与语言本身是连在一起的。此外，本文也将阐述一些现在使用的将文化导入外语课堂的技巧与方法。文章之主旨在于说明有效的交流不只是需要语言流利，除了增强语言与交流能力外，掌握文化的能力也可以使不同文化体的人得到相互尊重与情感共振。本论文共包括五个部分。第一部分为论文简介。第二部分是对文化的概念以及其与语言及交流的关系的深入探讨。文中将指出语言教学应该基于文化学习。语言是文化的一个重要组成部分。它是文化传输的主要媒介。没有语言，文化也难以存在。儿童在学习他们母语时也就在学习他们的文化。学习外语也涉及到不同程度地学习外来文化。另一方面，语言也受到文化的影响。语言反应文化。文化差异是跨文化交流中导致误解，产生不悦甚至产生矛盾的重要原因。文化教育的观念对于外语老师来说并不是新概念。许多人认为，文化教学只是上几节有关英语国家假日，服饰，民歌，饮食等的课。这些课程当然有用，但是因为这些课程往往没有一个更广阔的语境来支撑，所以他们对学生感悟英语语言与社会等方面作用并不大，特别是学生学习语言后需要在英语国家生活工作的。举例而言，问好，再见，称呼形式，感谢，要求，给出或接受称赞之类的日常会话并不难，但是实际学习中并不只是要求能够说出正确语法的句子，而是需要知道在什么情形下对谁说什么样的话是适当的，也需要理解语言中不同形式与用法所表现出来的信仰与价值观。第三部分将展示历史上学者们对文化教育的看法及做法。直到20世纪80年代学者才开始探究文化的意义以及其在成功外语教学中的重要作用。例如，Littlewood曾提倡过学习文化的作用，但是他还是把语言熟练度作为外语交流能力的主要标准。基于交流不只是信息的交换也负载着思想与价值观的观念，Melde(1987)提出外语教学应着重培养对目标语言社会生活的“批判性意识”。此观念与Fairclough在1989与1995年提出的批判理论一致（Byram, Morgan等人在1994年也提出过）。更具体地说，只有当学生能够理解外语语言中的视角，并有机会通过抛弃自身思维方式与对方相互理解来反映其自身视角时，才会吸收外语文化中道德层次，评价方式等，这些都不是能够简单地通过语言形式的学习而获得的（Byram,Morgan等人1994年提出）。也就是说，学生需要溶入到外国人的角色中，这样他才能获得对外语文化中价值与意义观念的理解。Baumgratz-Gangl(1990)指出整合外来文化与自身文化的中的价值与意义观念可以使学生改变视角或“认识到其认知缺陷”，有助于不同文化交流中的相互理解与支持。Kramsch(1993)将外语课堂比成“第三文化区”，也就是学生们创造并使用的文化中立区，学生可以在此中立区中探究并表达中国与外国的文化与语言。第四部分集中阐述有关大学英语教学中的文化教学的具体细节。首先我们会介绍文化教学的目标。文中将列出七个目标：帮助学生理解所有的人的行为都是在一定的文化环境中的；帮助学生理解年龄，性别，社会角色与出生地都会影响人说话与行为的方式；帮助学生建立其对外语文化中正常情形下的习惯行为的意识；帮助学生增强其对外语中词与短语的潜在文化含义的意识；帮助学生增强外语文化的评价与提炼能力；帮助学生发展对外语文化中信息进行定位与组织的必要技巧；激发学生对外语文化知识的兴趣并鼓励其去了解外国人。文化教学的根本日的在于提高学生的文化意识并激发其对英语文化及自身文化的兴趣，帮助学生对不同文化进行对比。然后我们将讲述文化教学的内容与原则。最后，我们将讨论一些具体的文化导入的方法，例如使用地道的学习材料，英语谚语，游戏，制作英语文化橱窗等。文化的导入不应带有过强的个人偏见，可以将英语文化与中国自身文化溶合。这样才能够较好地掌握外语与外语文化。最后一部分为结论。关键词：文化，文化教学，文化意识，文化与语言 AbstractLanguageisthevehicleandexpressionofculture.Itisneverseparatedfromculture.Andcultureisembeddedwithinlanguage.Therefore,EnglishteachingshouldincludeEnglishcultureteaching.IftheEnglishteachingiscomprisedonlyoflanguageknowledgeandhasnocultureeducation,thestudentthereofwillnotbeabletotrulymastertheEnglishlanguage,thereforenotabletodoeffectivecross-bordercommunication.Cultureeducationisthekeytotheeffectiveforeignlanguagecommunication.Toexpressaforeignlanguagedecentlywillrequiretheknowledgeofsocialcultureofthetarget.ThereforeitisessentialforEnglishteacherstoenhancetheknowledgeoftheimportanceofcultureeducation,thereforetrainingthestudentstoobtaingoodcross-bordercommunicationabilities.Thethesisisconcernedwiththecontributionandincorporationoftheteachingofcultureintotheforeignlanguageclassroom.Morespecifically,someconsiderationwillbegiventothewhyandhowofteachingculture.Itwillbedemonstratedthatteachingaforeignlanguageisnottantamounttogivingahomilyonsyntacticstructuresorlearningnewvocabularyandexpressions,butmainlyincorporates,orshouldincorporate,someculturalelements,whichareintertwinedwithlanguageitself.Furthermore,anattemptwillbemadetoincorporatecultureintotheclassroombymeansofconsideringsometechniquesandmethodscurrentlyused.Themainpremiseofthepaperisthateffectivecommunicationismorethanamatteroflanguageproficiencyandthat,apartfromenhancingandenrichingcommunicativecompetence,culturalcompetencecanalsoleadtoempathyandrespecttowarddifferentculturesaswellaspromoteobjectivityandculturalperspicacity.Thethesisconsistsoffiveparts.Thefirstpartisanintroduction.Thesecondpartisadeepstudyoftheconceptofcultureitselfanditsrelationshipwithlanguageandcommunication.Itindicatestousthatlanguageteachingshouldbebasedonculturestudy.Languageisakeycomponentofculture.Itistheprimarymediumfortransmittingmuchofculture.Withoutlanguage,culturewouldnotbepossible.Childrenlearningtheirnativelanguagearelearningtheirownculture;learningasecondlanguagealsoinvolveslearningasecondculturetovaryingdegrees.Ontheotherhand,languageisinfluencedandshapedbyculture.Itreflectsculture.Culturaldifferencesarethemostseriousareascausingmisunderstanding,unpleasantnessandevenconflictincross-cultural communication. Theideaofteachingcultureisnothingnewtosecondlanguageteachers.Inmanycases,teachingculturehasmeantfocusingafewlessonsonholidays,customaryclothing,folksongs,andfood.Whilethesetopicsmaybeuseful,withoutabroadercontextorframetheyofferlittleinthewayofenrichinglinguisticorsocialinsight—especiallyifagoaloflanguageinstructionistoenablestudentstofunctioneffectivelyinanotherlanguageandsociety.Understandingtheculturalcontextofday-to-dayconversationalconventionssuchasgreetings,farewells,formsofaddress,thanking,makingrequests,andgivingorreceivingcomplimentsmeansmorethanjustbeingabletoproducegrammaticalsentences.Itmeansknowingwhatisappropriatetosaytowhom,andinwhatsituations,anditmeansunderstandingthebeliefsandvaluesrepresentedbythevariousformsandusagesofthelanguage.Thethirdpartwillbeadisplayofthehistoryofcultureteaching.Itisonlyinthe1980sthatscholarsbegintodelveintothedynamicsofcultureanditsvitalcontributionto‘successful’languagelearning(Byram,Morganetal.,1994:5).Forexample,Littlewood(citedinByram,Morganetal.,1994:6)advocatesthevalueofculturallearning,althoughhestill‘keepslinguisticproficiencyastheoverallaimofcommunicativecompetence’(ibid.).Ontheassumptionthatcommunicationisnotonlyanexchangeofinformationbutalsoahighlycognitiveaswellasaffectiveandvalue-ladenactivity,Melde(1987)holdsthatforeignlanguageteachingshouldfoster‘criticalawareness’ofsociallife—aviewcommensuratewithFairclough’s(1989and1995)criticaltheory(seealsoByram,Morganetal.,1994).Morespecifically,whenthelearnerunderstandstheperspectivesofothersandisofferedtheopportunitytoreflectonhisownperspectives,‘throughaprocessofreciprocity,therearisesamoraldimension,ajudgmentaltendency,whichisnotdefinedpurelyonformal,logicalgrounds’(Byram,Morganetal.,1994).Tothisend,thelearnerneedstotaketheroleoftheforeigner,sothathemaygaininsightsintothevaluesandmeaningsthatthelatterhasinternalizedandunconsciouslynegotiateswiththemembersofthesocietytowhichhebelongs(ibid.).BesideMelde,Baumgratz-Gangl(1990)assertsthattheintegrationofvaluesandmeaningsoftheforeignculturewiththoseofone’s“nativeculture”canbringaboutashiftofperspectiveorthe‘recognitionofcognitivedissonance’(Byram,Morganetal.),bothconducivetoreciprocityandempathy.TheforthpartconcentratesonthedetailedideasforcultureteachingincollegeEnglishprograms.Firstweintroduceabouttheobjectiveofcultureteaching.Sevengoalsofcultureteachingislisted:Tohelpstudentstodevelopanunderstandingofthefactthatallpeopleexhibitculturally-conditionedbehaviors;Tohelpstudentstodevelopanunderstandingthatsocialvariablessuchasage,sex,socialclass,andplaceofresidenceinfluencethewaysinwhichpeoplespeakandbehave;Tohelp studentstobecomemoreawareofconventionalbehaviorincommonsituationsinthetargetculture;Tohelpstudentstoincreasetheirawarenessoftheculturalconnotationsofwordsandphrasesinthetargetlanguage;Tohelpstudentstodeveloptheabilitytoevaluateandrefinegeneralizationsaboutthetargetculture,intermsofsupportingevidence;Tohelpstudentstodevelopthenecessaryskillstolocateandorganizeinformationaboutthetargetculture;Tostimulatestudents’intellectualcuriosityaboutthetargetculture,andtoencourageempathytowardsitspeople.Atanyrate,theaimofteachingcultureis‘toincreasestudents’awarenessandtodeveloptheircuriositytowardsthetargetcultureandtheirown,helpingthemtomakecomparisonsamongcultures.Attheendofthepart,wewilldiscusssomespecifictechniquesofcultureincorporation,suchasusingauthenticmaterials,proverbs,roleplay,culturecapsules,studentsasculturalresources,ethnographicstudies,literatureFilm.Culturalinformationshouldbepresentedinanonjudgmentalfashion,inawaythatdoesnotplacevalueorjudgmentondistinctionsbetweenthestudents’nativecultureandthecultureexploredintheclassroom.Kramsch(1993)describesthe“thirdculture”ofthelanguageclassroom—aneutralspacethatlearnerscancreateandusetoexploreandreflectontheirownandthetargetcultureandlanguage.Thelastpartistheconclusion.Keywords:culture,cultureteaching,cultureawareness,cultureandlanguage TableofContentsAbstractI.IntroductionII.OverallStudy:Culture&CultureTeaching2.1.Definition&VariationofCulture2.2.Language&Culture2.2.1.Theroleoflanguageincommunication 2.2.2.Interrelationshipbetweencultureandlanguage 2.3.Culture&Communication2.4.CulturalAwareness2.5.DataStudyofLanguage&CultureTeachingIII.TheHistoryOFCultureTeachingIV.CulturalTeachinginCollegeEnglishProgram4.1.ObjectiveofCultureTeaching4.2.ContentofCultureTeaching4.2.1.ValuesandNorms4.2.2.SocialRoles4.3.CultureIncorporation-PrinciplesandSpecificTechniquesInCultureTeaching4.3.1PrinciplesInCultureTeaching4.3.2.SpecificTechniquesInCultureTeachingV.Conclusion ChapterIIntroductionForeignlanguagelearningiscomprisedofmanycomponents,includinggrammaticalcompetence,communicativecompetence,languageproficiency,aswellasthechangeinattitudestowardsone’sownoranotherculture.Forscholarsandlaymenalike,culturalcompetence,i.e.,theknowledgeoftheconventions,beliefs,andsystemsofmeaningofanothercountry,isindisputablyanintegralpartofforeignlanguagelearning,andmanyteachershaveseenitastheirimportantgoaltoincorporatetheteachingofcultureintotheforeignlanguagecurriculum.Itcouldbemaintainedthatthenotionofcommunicativecompetence,which,inthepastdecadeormore,hasblazedatrail,sotospeak,inforeignlanguageteaching,emphasizingtheroleofcontextandcircumstancesunderwhichlanguagescanbeusedaccuratelyandappropriately,‘fall[s]shortofthemarkwhenitcomestoactuallyequippingstudentswiththecognitiveabilitiestheyneedinasecond-cultureenvironment’(Straub,1999:2).Inanotherway,sincethewidercontextoflanguage,thatis,societiesandculture,hasbeenreducedtoavariableelusiveofanydefinition—asmanyteachersandstudentsoftentalkaboutitwithoutknowingwhatitsexactmeaningis—itstandstoreasonthatthetermcommunicativecompetenceshouldbecomenothingmorethananemptyandmeretriciousword,resortedtoiffornootherreasonthantomakean“educationalpoint.”Inreality,whatmostteachersandstudentsseemtolosesightofisthefactthat‘knowledgeofthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage[grammaticalcompetence]hastobecomplementedbyunderstanding(sic)ofculture-specificmeanings[communicativeorratherculturalcompetence]’(Byram,Morgan1994:4).Ofcourse,wearelongpastanerawhenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondorforeignlanguagelearningwerecastina“behaviormould,”beingtheproductsofimitationandlanguage“drills,”andlanguagewasthoughtofasacompendiumofrulesandstringsofwordsandsentencesusedtoformpropositionsaboutastateofaffairs.Inthelasttwodecades,therehasbeenaresurgenceofinterestinthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety,whichhasledtoashiftoffocusfrombehaviorismandpositivismtoconstructivismtocriticaltheory(seeBenson&Voller,1997:19-25).Yet,therearestillsomedeeplyingrainedbeliefsastothenatureoflanguagelearningandteaching—beliefsthatdeterminemethodologyaswellasthecontentoftheforeignlanguagecurriculum—whichhave,graduallyandinsidiously,contrivedtounderminetheteachingofculture.Oneofthemisconceptionsthathavepermeatedforeignlanguageteachingistheconvictionthatlanguageismerelyacodeand,oncemastered—mainlybydintof steepingoneselfintogrammaticalrulesandsomeaspectsofthesocialcontextinwhichitisembedded—‘onelanguageisessentially(albeitnoteasily)translatableintoanother’(Kramsch,1993:1).Toacertainextent,thisbeliefhasbeeninstrumentalinpromotingvariousapproachestoforeignlanguageteaching—pragmatic,social-linguistic,andcommunicative—whichhavecertainlyendowedthestudyoflanguagewithasocial“hue”;nevertheless,payinglipservicetothesocialdynamicsthatunderlinelanguagewithouttryingtoidentifyandgaininsightsintotheveryfabricofsocietyandculturethathavecometochargelanguageinmanyandvariedwayscanonlycausemisunderstandingandleadtocross-culturalmiscommunication.Atanyrate,foreignlanguagelearningisforeignculturelearning,and,inoneformoranother,culturehas,evenimplicitly,beentaughtintheforeignlanguageclassroom—iffordifferentreasons.Whatisdebatable,though,iswhatismeantbytheterm“culture”andhowthelatterisintegratedintolanguagelearningandteaching.Kramsch’skeenobservationshouldnotgounnoticed:Cultureinlanguagelearningisnotanexpendablefifthskill,tackedon,sotospeak,totheteachingofspeaking,listening,reading,andwriting.Itisalwaysinthebackground,rightfromdayone,readytounsettlethegoodlanguagelearnerswhentheyexpectitleast,makingevidentthelimitationsoftheirhard-woncommunicativecompetence,challengingtheirabilitytomakesenseoftheworldaroundthem.(Kramsch,1993:1)Theteachingofcultureisnotakintothetransmissionofinformationregardingthepeopleofthetargetcommunityorcountry—eventhoughknowledgeabout(letaloneexperienceof)the“targetgroup”isanimportantingredient(seeNostrand,1967:118).Itwouldbenothingshortofludicroustoassertthatcultureismerelyarepositoryoffactsandexperiencestowhichonecanhaverecourse,ifneedbe.Furthermore,whatKramschherselfseemstoinsinuateisthattolearnaforeignlanguageisnotmerelytolearnhowtocommunicatebutalsotodiscoverhowmuchleewaythetargetlanguageallowslearnerstomanipulategrammaticalforms,sounds,andmeanings,andtoreflectupon,orevenflout,sociallyacceptednormsatworkbothintheirownorthetargetculture.Thereisdefinitelymorethanmeetstheeye,andthepresentpaperhastheaimofunravelingthe“mystery,”sheddingsomelightontheroleofteachingcultureinfosteringcross-culturalunderstandingwhichtranscendstheboundariesoflinguisticforms—whileenrichingandgivingfardeepermeaningtowhatisdubbed“communicativecompetence”—andrunscountertoasolipsisticworldview.I wouldliketoshowthattheteachingofculturehasenjoyedfarless“adulation”thanitmerits,andconsiderwaysofincorporatingitnotonlyintotheforeignlanguagecurriculumbutalsointolearners’repertoireandoutlookonlife.Themainpremiseofthispaperisthatwecannotgoaboutteachingaforeignlanguagewithoutatleastofferingsomeinsightsintoitsspeakers’culture.Bythesametoken,wecannotgoaboutfostering“communicativecompetence”withouttakingintoaccountthedifferentviewsandperspectivesofpeopleindifferentcultureswhichmayenhanceoreveninhibitcommunication.Afterall,communicationrequiresunderstanding,andunderstandingrequiressteppingintotheshoesoftheforeignerandsiftingherculturalbaggage,whilealways‘putting[thetarget]cultureinrelationwithone’sown’(Kramsch,1993:205).Moreover,weshouldbecognizantofthefactthatifweteachlanguagewithoutteachingatthesametimethecultureinwhichitoperates,weareteachingmeaninglesssymbolsorsymbolstowhichthestudentattachesthewrongmeaning…’(Politzer,1959:100-101). ChapterIIOverallStudy:Culture&CultureTeaching2.1.Definition&VariationofCultureDefinitionWhatexactlyisculture?AsNemni(1992)andStreet(1993)suggest,thisisnotaneasyquestiontoanswer,particularlyinanincreasinglyinternationalworld.Onagenerallevel,culturehasbeenreferredtoas‘thewaysofapeople’(Lado,1957).Thisviewincorporatesboth‘material’manifestationsofculturethatareeasilyseenand‘non-material’onesthataremoredifficulttoobserve,asSaville-Troike(1975:83)notes.Anthropologistsdefinecultureas‘thewholewayoflifeofapeopleorgroup.Inthiscontext,culture(sic)includesallthesocialpracticesthatbondagroupofpeopletogetheranddistinguishthemfromothers’(MontgomeryandReid-Thomas,1994:5).AccordingtoPeck(1998),Cultureisalltheacceptedandpatternedwaysofbehaviorofagivenpeople.Itisthatfacetofhumanlifelearnedbypeopleasaresultofbelongingtosomeparticulargroup;itisthatpartoflearnedbehaviorsharedwithothers.Notonlydoesthisconceptincludeagroup’swayofthinking,feeling,andacting,butalsotheinternalizedpatternsfordoingcertainthingsincertainways,notjustthedoingofthem.Thisconceptofculturealsoincludesthephysicalmanifestationsofagroupasexhibitedintheirachievementsandcontributionstocivilization.Cultureisoursociallegacyascontrastedwithourorganicheredity.Itregulatesourlivesateveryturn.Itcouldbearguedthatcultureneverremainsstatic,butisconstantlychanging.Inthislight,Robinson(1988)dismissesbehaviorist,functionalist,andcognitivedefinitionsofcultureandpositsasymboliconewhichseescultureasadynamic‘systemofsymbolsandmeanings’whereby‘pastexperienceinfluencesmeaning,whichinturnaffectsfutureexperience,whichinturnaffectssubsequentmeaning,andsoon.Itisthisdynamicnatureofculturethathasbeenlostsightofandunderratedinforeignlanguageteachingandoughttobecastinanewperspective.Learningaforeignlanguagecanbesubversiveoftheassumptionsandpremisesoperatinginthe‘homeculture’(Straub,1999),whichrequiresthatlearnersbeofferedtheopportunityfor“personalgrowth,”intermsof‘personalmeanings,pleasures,andpower’(Kramsch,1993:238).AsKramsch(ibid.:238)notes,‘fromtheclashbetween…thenativecultureand…thetargetculture,meaningsthatweretakenforgrantedaresuddenlyquestioned,challenged.’.However,inordertoquestionandreinterpret(ReynoldsandSkilbeck,1976:6)L2culture,“L1observers”mustfirstbecomeawareofwhatitmeanstoparticipateintheirowncultureandwhatthecontentsofcultureare. ApartfromBrooks,whoseworkwementionedearlieron,severalotherscholarssuchasLado(1964),Goodenough(1981),Kallenbach&Hodges(1963),Straub(1999),andothershaveprovidedaframeworkwithinwhichtoidentifythenatureofculture,beithomecultureortargetculture.Forinstance,Goodenough(1981:62)summarizesthecontentsofculturebrieflyquotedbelow:·Thewaysinwhichpeoplehaveorganizedtheirexperienceoftherealworldsoastogiveitstructureasaphenomenalworldofforms,theirperceptsandconcepts.·Thewaysinwhichpeoplehaveorganizedtheirexperienceoftheirphenomenalworldsoastogiveitstructureasasystemofcauseandeffectrelationships,thatis,thepropositionsandbeliefsbywhichtheyexplaineventsandaccomplishtheirpurposes.·Thewaysinwhichpeoplehaveorganizedtheirexperiencessoastostructuretheirworldinhierarchiesofpreferences,namely,theirvalueorsentimentsystems.·Thewaysinwhichpeoplehaveorganizedtheirexperienceoftheirpasteffortstoaccomplishrecurringpurposesintooperationalproceduresforaccomplishingthesepurposesinthefuture,thatis,asetof“grammatical”principlesofactionandaseriesofrecipesforaccomplishingparticularends.ForGoodenough(1963:258-259),culture…consistsofstandardsfordecidingwhatis,standardsfordecidingwhatcanbe,standardsfordecidinghowonefeelsaboutit,standardsfordecidingwhattodoaboutit,andstandardsfordecidinghowtogoaboutdoingit.Clearly,cultureisaubiquitousforce,forgingouridentitiesandourrelationshipswithotherthingsandindividuals.Wereitnotforculture,wewouldbe‘littlemorethan…gibbering,incomprehensibleidiot[s],lesscapableofmeresurvivalthanamemberoftheveryearliesttribeofprehistoricmen’(Kallenbach&Hodges,1963:11).Toviewcultureas‘thetotallifewayofapeople[and]thesociallegacytheindividualacquiresfromhisgroup’(ibid.)leadstothebeliefthattobehumanineluctablymeanstobecultured.Whatismore,accordingtoKallenbach&Hodges(1963:20),culturechannelsbiologicalprocesses—vomiting,weeping,fainting,sneezing….whilesensationsofpleasure,anger,andlustmaybestimulatedbyculturalcuesthatwouldleaveunmovedsomeonewhohasbeenrearedinadifferentsocialtradition.In1871,inhisclassicbook PrimitiveCulture,Britishanthropologist EdwardTylor firstgavethedefinitionofculturewhichiswidelyquoted:“Culture…isthatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,beliefs,arts,morals,law,customandanyothercapacitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety”.  Culture,arguedbymanyanthropologists,mostnotably CliffordGeertz,isasymbolicmeaningsystem.Itissemioticsysteminwhichsymbolsfunctiontocommunicatemeaningfromonemindtoanother.Culturalsymbolsencodeaconnectionbetweenasignifyingformandasignaledmeaning.Fromthestandpointofcontemporaryculturalanthropologists,thefollowingfourbasicfeaturescharacterizeculture: 1)Cultureisakindofsocialinheritanceinsteadofbiologicalheritage;2)Cultureissharedbythewholecommunity,anddoesn’tbelongingtoanyparticularindividual; 3)Cultureisasymbolicmeaningsysteminwhichlanguageisoneofthemostimportantones; 4)Cultureisaunifiedsystem,theintegralpartsofwhicharecloselyrelatedtooneanother. Variousdefinitionsonculturearegivenbyscholarsfromdifferentpointsofview.Sometreatedculturesuperficiallyasasetofspecificartifacts,man-madeenvironments,patternsofsocialorganizationandovertformsofbehavior.Otherstreatedcultureinamoreabstractwayasthesharedknowledgeofmembersofsocialcommunitieslikeworldviews,valueorientations,norms,manners,customs,preferredstylesofthinkingandarguing,etc.Beingtakenas“sociallyacquiredknowledge”(Hudson,1980:74),cultureisclassifiedbysomescholarsintoculturalknowledgeinformationandculturalcommunicationinformation.Theformerreferstothefactualinformationthatdoesnotexertadirectinfluenceonthecross-culturalcommunication,includinganation’shistory,geographyandsoon.Thelatterpointstothesocio-pragmaticrulesindailycommunicationwhichentailnotonlywaysofgreeting,thanking,apologizingandaddressing,butalsoattentiontotaboos,euphemisms,modestyandpoliteformulainuse,etc.Thefactualinformationprovidesthenon-nativespeakerswithnodirectdilemmasVariationsNowweareclearaboutwhatcultureactuallyis.However,thepropertiesofculturemayfeelquitedifferentfromplacetoplaceorfrompersontoperson.Itvaries.Studyingthevariationsofculturewillhelpusunderstandtheconceptofculturebetter.Belowwelistedafewimportantpointsthatconcernthevariationofculture.DistinguishingversusConsumingCulturesSomeculturesgiveweightandpresence(thoughnotnecessarilyequal)toeachoftheirconstituentelements(theindividualandsocialstructures).Eachsuch elementisidiosyncraticandunique.Suchcultureswouldaccentuateattentiontodetails,privateenterprise,initiative,innovation,entrepreneurship,inventiveness,youth,statussymbols,consumption,money,creativity,art,scienceandtechnology.Thesearethethingsthatdistinguishoneindividualfromanother.Suchculturesemphasizegeneralizations,stereotypes,conformity,consensus,belonging,socialstructures,procedures,forms,undertakingsinvolvingthelabororotherinputofhumanmasses.FutureversusPastOrientedCulturesSomecultureslooktothepast–realorimaginary–forinspiration,motivation,sustenance,hope,guidanceanddirection.TheseculturestendtodirecttheireffortsandresourcesandinvesttheminwhatIS.Theyare,therefore,boundtobematerialistic,figurative,substantive,andearthly.Theyarelikelytopreferoldagetoyouth,oldhabitstonew,oldbuildingstomodernarchitecture,etc.ThispreferenceoftheElders(atermofveneration)overtheYoungsters(adenigratingterm)typifiesthemstrongly.Theseculturesarelikelytoberiskaverse.Othercultureslooktothefuture–alwaysprojected–forthesamereasons.Theseculturesinvesttheireffortsandresourcesinanephemeralfuture(uponthenatureorimageofwhichthereisnoagreementorcertainty).Theseculturesare,inevitably,moreabstract,moreimaginative,morecreative(havingtodesignmultiplescenariosjusttosurvive).Theyarealsomorelikelytohaveayouthcult:toprefertheyoung,thenew,therevolutionary,andthefresh–totheold,thehabitual,andthepredictable.Theyarebeingrisk-centeredandrisk-assumingcultures.ConsensusversusConflictCulturesSomeculturesaremorecohesive,coherent,rigidandwellboundedandconstrained.Asaresult,theywillmaintainanunchangingnatureandbestatic.Theydiscourageanythingwhichcouldunbalancethemorperturbtheirequilibriumandhomeostasis.Theseculturesencourageconsensus-building,teamwork,togethernessandwe-ness,massexperiences,socialsanctionsandsocialregulation,structuredsocialization,peerloyalty,belonging,homogeneity,identityformationthroughallegiancetoagroup.Theseculturesemploynumerousself-preservationmechanismsandstricthierarchy,obedience,discipline,discrimination(bysex,by race,aboveall,byageandfamilialaffiliation).Otherculturesseemmore"ruffled","arbitrary",ordisturbed.Theyarepluralistic,heterogeneousandtorn.Thesearethedynamic(or,fashionably,theemergent)cultures.Theyencourageconflictasthemainarbiterinthesocialandeconomicspheres("theinvisiblehandofthemarket"ortheAmerican"checksandbalances"),contractualandtransactionalrelationships,partisanship,utilitarianism,heterogeneity,self-fulfillment,andfluidityofthesocialstructures,democracy.Exogenic-ExtrinsicMeaningCulturesVersusEndogenic-IntrinsicMeaningCulturesSomeculturesderivetheirsenseofmeaning,ofdirectionandoftheresultingwishfulfillmentbyreferringtoframeworkswhichareoutsidethemorbiggerthanthem.Theyderivemeaningonlythroughincorporationorreference.TheencompassingframeworkcouldbeGod,History,theNation,aCallingoraMission,alargerSocialStructure,aDoctrine,anIdeology,oraValueorBeliefSystem,anEnemy,aFriend,theFuture–anythingqualifieswhichisbiggerandoutsidethemeaning-seekingculture.Otherculturesderivetheirsenseofmeaning,ofdirectionandoftheresultingwishfulfilmentbyreferringtothemselves–andtothemselvesonly.Itisnotthattheseculturesignorethepast–theyjustdonotre-liveit.Itisnotthattheydonotpossessavalueorabeliefsystemorevenanideology–itisthattheyareopentothepossibilityofalteringit.Whileinthefirsttypeofcultures,Manismeaninglesswereitnotfortheoutsidesystemswhichendowhimwithmeaning–inthelattertheoutsidesystemsaremeaninglesswereitnotforManwhoendowsthemwithmeaning. 2.2.Language&Culture2.2.1TheroleoflanguageincommunicationAccordingto Sapir (1921),“languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesirebymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”Languageisapartofcultureandapartofhumanbehavior. Itisoftenheldthatthefunctionoflanguageistoexpressthoughtandtocommunicateinformation.Languagealsofulfillsmanyothertaskssuchasgreetingpeople,conductingreligiousservice,etc. Krech（1962）explainedthemajorfunctionsoflanguagefromthefollowingthreeaspects: 1.Languageistheprimaryvehicleofcommunication; 2.Languagereflectsboththepersonalityoftheindividualandthecultureofhishistory.Inturn,ithelpsshapebothpersonalityandculture; 3.Languagemakespossiblethegrowthandtransmissionofculture,thecontinuityofsocieties,andtheeffectivefunctioningandcontrolofsocialgroup. Itisobviousthatlanguageplaysaparamountroleindeveloping,elaboratingandtransmittingcultureandlanguage,enablingustostoremeaningsandexperiencetofacilitatecommunication.Thefunctionoflanguageissoimportantincommunicationthatitisevenexaggeratedbysomescholars.Themostfamousoneisthehypothesisoflinguisticdeterminismconcerningtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture,whichNidaregardsasmisconceptionsconstitutingseriousdifficultiesforcross-culturalunderstanding. 2.2.2Interrelationshipbetweencultureandlanguage Eachculturehasitsownpeculiaritiesandthrowsspecialinfluenceonthelanguagesystem.Forexample,referringtothesamecommondomesticanimal,Englishchoosestheword“dog”,whileChinesehasitsowncharacter“狗”;Chinesehasthephrase“走狗”whileEnglishhastheexpression“runningdog”,butthemeaningsattributedtothetwoexpressionsarecompletelydifferentaccordingtoChinesecultureandWesternculturerespectively.ToWesterners,“runningdog”hasapositivemeaningsincetheword“dog”,inmostcases,isassociatedwithanimageofananimalpet－thefavoritefriend,thustheyhavethe phrases“luckydog”（幸运儿）,“topdog”（胜利者）,“olddog”（老手）,“gaydog”（快乐的人）,anditisusuallyusedtodescribeeverydaylifeandbehavior,asin“Loveme,lovemydog”（爱屋及乌），“Everydoghasitsday”（凡人皆有得意日）.ButinChinese“走狗”referstoalackey,anobsequiousperson.SinceChineseassociatesderogatorymeaningtothecharacter“狗”dependingontheculturaldifference,Chinesehassuchexpressionsas“狗腿子”，“狗仗人势”. Wecanobviouslyseethatthemeaningattributedtolanguageiscultural-specific.Agreatdealofcross-culturalmisunderstandingoccurswhenthe“meanings”ofwordsintwolanguagesareassumedtobethesame,butactuallyreflectdifferentculturalpatterns.SomearehumorousaswhenaTurkishvisitortotheU.S.refusedtoeatahotdogbecauseitwasagainsthisbeliefstoeatdogmeat.SomearemuchmoreseriousaswhenaFrenchcoupleonatriptoChinatooktheirpetpoodleintoarestaurantandrequestedsomedogfood.Thedogwascookedandreturnedtotheirtableonaplatter! Wecansummarizetherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguageasthefollowing:languageisakeycomponentofculture.Itistheprimarymediumfortransmittingmuchofculture.Withoutlanguage,culturewouldnotbepossible.Childrenlearningtheirnativelanguagearelearningtheirownculture;learningasecondlanguagealsoinvolveslearningasecondculturetovaryingdegrees.Ontheotherhand,languageisinfluencedandshapedbyculture.Itreflectsculture.Culturaldifferencesarethemostseriousareascausingmisunderstanding,unpleasantnessandevenconflictincross-culturalcommunication.  2.3.Culture&CommunicationWhenwediscusscommunicationandculture,weshouldbeawareofthetotalspectrumofcommunicationincludinglanguage,non-verbalcommunication,customs,perceivedvalues,andconceptsoftimeandspace.DoalltouristsidentifywithCanadiantraditionsandvalues?Likelynot.Butthemoreinterestingquestionis:Whynot?Theanswerliesinthesimplefactthatmosttouristscomefromdifferentcultures:somevastlydifferentlikethosefromJapanandChina,otherslessdifferent,suchastouristsfromEasternCanadaortheUnitedStates.Eveniftouristssharethesamelanguage,theymayhavemuchdifferentcustomsandvalues.Whathappenswhenpeoplefromdifferentculturesinteractfacetoface?Onewaytoappreciatetheimpactofculturaldifferencesistolookinthemirror.WhenAmericansandCanadianstraveltoothercountries,theylookforCokes,steaksandhamburgersandthesameamenitiesinhotelsandotheraccommodationsthattheyareusedtoathome.Whilethehostcountrymayofferanauthenticallydifferentculture,whichisoneofthereasonspeopletravel,NorthAmericanstouristsarenotoriousforwantingthecomfortsofhomewherevertheymaybe.Inmanythirdworldcountries,NorthAmericansseekoutjointventurehotelstoenjoyNorthAmericanfoodandlodgingandtobeservedbypeoplewhospeakEnglish.Strangely,whatweexpectforourselvesintravelisnotdeemedtobereasonablewhenwe"rethehostsdealingwithtouristsfromothercountries.LevelofContextAnimportantaspectofcommunicationisthelevelofcontextinwhichthemessageispassed.Linguistsandanthropologistsusetheterms"high"and"low"contexttoindicatehowmuchinformationisrequiredforsuccessfulcommunication.High-contextcommunicationisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationiseitherinthephysicalcontextorinternalizedintheperson,whileverylittleofthemessageisactuallyinwords(Hall:1976:79).Couplesoftencancommunicatewithalook,oranodoftheheadatmost.Low-contextcommunicationisjusttheopposite:mostoftheinformationisverbalized.Twinswhohavegrownuptogethercananddocommunicationmoreeconomically(highcontext)thanopposinglawyersinacourtroomduringatrial(low-context)(Hall:1976:79).Thegreatertheculturaldistanceis,themoredifficulttheinterface.Anexampleofeasy-to-interfacecommunicationwouldbeGermanyandSwitzerland.Theculturaldistanceinthiscaseisnotgreatsincebothculturesarelowcontextaswellasmonochromic,aconceptdiscussedinthefollowingsection(Hall:1990:27).Adifficult-to-interfacecommunicationwouldbeFranceandtheUnitedStates.If you"recommunicatingwithaGerman,remembertheyarelow-contextandwillneedlotsofinformationanddetails.Ifyou"recommunicatingwithsomeonefromFrance,theyarehigh-contextandwon"trequireasmuchinformation(Hall:1990:28).Contextistheinformationthatsurroundsanevent;itisinextricablyboundupwiththemeaningofthatevent.Theelementsthatcombinetoproduceagivenmeaning--eventsandcontext--areindifferentproportionsdependingontheculture.Theculturesoftheworldscanbecomparedonascalefromhightolowcontext(Hall:1990:27).Low-contextpeopleincludeAmericans,Germans,Swiss,ScandinaviansandothernorthernEuropeans.Theycompartmentalizetheirpersonalrelationships,theirwork,andmanyaspectsofday-to-daylife.Consequently,eachtimetheyinteractwithotherstheyneeddetailedbackgroundinformation.TheFrencharemuchhigheronthecontextscalethaneithertheGermansortheAmericans.Thisdifferencecanaffectvirtuallyeverysituationandeveryrelationshipinwhichthemembersofthesetwooppositetraditionsfindthemselves.Highcontextpeopleareapttobecomeimpatientandirritatedwhenlow-contextpeopleinsistongivingtheminformationtheydon"tneed(Hall:1990:10).Conversely,low-contextpeopleareatalosswhenhigh-contextpeopledonotprovideenoughinformation.Oneofthegreatcommunicationchallengesinlifeistofindtheappropriatelevelofcontextneededineachsituation.Toomuchinformationleadspeopletofeeltheyarebeingtalkeddownto;toolittleinformationcanmystifythemormakethemfeelleftout.Ordinarily,peoplemaketheseadjustmentsautomaticallyintheirowncountry,butinothercountriestheirmessagesfrequentlymissthetarget(Hall:1990:9).ConceptofTimeAnotherimportantfactorincross-culturalcommunicationistheconceptoftime.Wecandividepeopleintotworoughcategorieswithrespecttotime:monochromicandpolychromicpeople.Monochromicpeopletendtodoonethingatatime,concentrateonthejobathand,taketimecommitmentsseriouslyandareconcernednottodisturbothers.Theyalsotendtoberulefollowers,showgreatrespectforprivateproperty,seldomborroworlendandemphasizepromptness.Inaddition,theyarelow-contextintermsofthecategorydiscussedearlier.Polychronicpeoplearealmostoppositesinalloftheabove.Theyarehigh-contexttypes,whodomanythingsatonce,arehighlydistractibleandsubjecttointerruptions.Whiletheyconsidertimecommitmentsobjectivestobepossible,theyaremoreconcernedwithrelationships,especiallyfamilyandfriends(Hall:1990:15). Asmentionedabove,promptnessistakenforgrantedinGermany.Infact,it"salmostanobsession.Ifthereisachanceyou"llbelateforanappointment,phoneahead.TheGermanswanttoknowwherepeopleareatalltimes;notknowingviolatestheirsenseoforder(Hall:1990:36).Itisalwaysimportanttoknowwhichsegmentofthetimeframeisemphasized.Easternpeoplestendtobepast-oriented.Others,suchasthoseintheurbanUnitedStates,areorientedtothepresentandshort-termfuture.Stillothers,suchasLatinAmericans,arebothpastandpresentoriented.InGermany,wherehistoricalbackgroundisveryimportant,everytalk,book,orarticlebeginswithbackgroundinformationgivinganhistoricalperspective.Thisirritatesmanyforeignerswhokeepwondering"whydon"ttheygetonwithit?Afterall,Iameducated.Don"ttheGermansknowthat?"TheJapaneseandtheFrencharealsosteepedinhistory,butbecausetheyarehigh-contextcultures,historicalfactsarealludedtoobliquely.Atpresent,thereisnosatisfactoryexplanationforwhyandhowdifferencesofthissortcameabout(Hall:1990:17).ConceptofSpaceInhumans,territorialityishighlydevelopedandstronglyinfluencedbyculture.ItisparticularlywelldevelopedintheGermansandtheAmericans.Americanstendtoestablishplacesthattheylabel"mine"-acook"sfeelingaboutakitchenorachild"sviewofherorherbedroom.InGermany,thissamefeelingofterritorialityiscommonlyextendedtoallpossessions,includingtheautomobile.IfaGerman"scaristouched,itisasthoughtheindividualshimselfhasbeentouched.Spacealsocommunicatespower.InGermanandAmericansthetopfloorismoreimportantthanothers,whilefortheFrenchmiddlefloorsaremoreimportant(Hall:1990:11).PersonalSpace:Thisisanotherformofterritory.Eachpersonhasaroundhimaninvisiblebubbleofspacewhichexpandsandcontractsdependingonanumberofthings:therelationshiptothepeoplenearby,theperson"semotionalstate,culturalbackground,andtheactivitybeingperformed.Fewpeopleareallowedtopenetratethisbitofmobileterritoryandthenonlyforshortperiodsoftime.InnorthernEurope,thebubblesarequitelargeandpeoplekeeptheirdistance.InsouthernFrance,Italy,Greece,andSpain,thebubblesgetsmallerandsmallersothatthedistancethatisperceivedasintimateinthenorthoverlapsnormalconversationaldistanceinthesouth.ThismeansthatMediterraneanEuropeans"gettooclose"to theGermans,theScandinavians,theEnglishandthoseAmericansofNorthernEuropeanancestry.InnorthernEurope,onedoesnottouchothers.Eventhebrushingoftheovercoatsleeveusedtoelicitanapology(Hall:1990:11). 2.4.CulturalAwarenessCulturalAwarenessisthefoundationofcommunicationanditinvolvestheabilityofstandingbackfromourselvesandbecomingawareofourculturalvalues,beliefsandperceptions.Whydowedothingsinthatway?Howdoweseetheworld?Whydowereactinthatparticularway?Culturalawarenessbecomescentralwhenwehavetointeractwithpeoplefromothercultures.Peoplesee,interpretandevaluatethingsinadifferentways.Whatisconsideredanappropriatebehaviorinonecultureisfrequentlyinappropriateinanotherone.MisunderstandingsarisewhenIusemymeaningstomakesenseofyourreality.AsanItalianitisalmostautomatictoperceiveUSAmericansaspeoplewhoalwayswork,talkaboutbusinessoverlunchanddrinktheircoffeerunninginthestreetinsteadofenjoyingitinabar.Whatdoesitmean?ItaliansarelazyandAmericanhyperactive?No,itmeansthatthemeaningthatpeoplegivetocertainactivities,likehavinglunchordinnercouldbedifferentaccordingtocertaincultures.InItaly,whererelationshipsarehighlyvalued,lunch,dinnerorthesimplepausesforcoffeehaveasocialconnotation:peoplegettogethertotalkandrelax,andtogettoknoweachotherbetter.IntheUSA,wheretimeismoney,lunchescanbepartofclosingadealwherepeoplediscusstheoutcomesandsignacontractovercoffee.Misinterpretationsoccurprimarilywhenwelackawarenessofourownbehavioralrulesandprojectthemonothers.Inabsenceofbetterknowledgewetendtoassume,insteadoffindingoutwhatabehaviormeanstothepersoninvolved,e.g.astraightlookintoyourfaceisregardedasdisrespectfulinJapan.Becomingawareofourculturaldynamicsisadifficulttaskbecausecultureisnotconscioustous.Sincewearebornwehavelearnedtoseeanddothingsatanunconsciouslevel.Ourexperiences,ourvaluesandourculturalbackgroundleadustoseeanddothingsinacertainway.Sometimeswehavetostepoutsideofourculturalboundariesinordertorealizetheimpactthatourculturehasonourbehavior.Itisveryhelpfultogatherfeedbackfromforeigncolleaguesonourbehaviortogetmoreclarityonourculturaltraits.Projectedsimilaritiescouldleadtomisinterpretationaswell.Whenweassumethatpeoplearesimilartous,wemightincurtheriskthattheyarenot.Ifweprojectsimilaritieswheretherearenot,wemightactinappropriately.Itissafertoassumedifferencesuntilsimilarityisproven. 2.5.DataStudyofLanguage&CultureTeachingDoescultureteachingactuallycontributetoimprovingthelanguageandcommunicationskillsofthestudentsinpractice?Well,concretedatamayhelpusunderstandbetter.Belowisaquestionnairestudy.Thedataforthisstudywascollectedbyaforeignlanguagegroupthreemonthsfollowingthecompletionofthe28-hourculturecoursetakenduringthefalltermof2003-2004academicyear.Duringthiscourselecture-typesessions,aswellasresearchprojectpresentationswereheld.Studentstakingthisclassmadeanassessmentofthecourse,respondingtoathree-itemquestionnaire.Theparticipantsinthisstudywere38students(28femalesand10malesrangingbetween21-25yearsofage)Webeganthequestionnairewiththeitemaskingwhethertheculturecoursecontributedtoanyofthelanguageskillsoftheparticipants.Allofthe38(100%)participantsgaveaffirmativeanswerstothisitem.Table1ItemNo.ItemResponses%1Didthiscoursecontributetoanyofyourlanguageskills?Yes100No0Regardingtheskillimprovedmost,theparticipants,by42.6%expressedviewssuggestingthattheirspeakingskillwassignificantlyimproved.Readingandlisteningskillscamenextby26.3%each,andwritingbyasmall5.3%.Sincethecoursewasmainlypresentationbased,theparticipantsspentalotoftimeconductingseminarsandpresentationprojects.Therefore,boththepresentersandtherestoftheclasspracticedspeakingsincetheydiscussedculturaltopicsinthetargetlanguage.Table2ItemNo.ItemResponsesFrequency%2Towhichskilldidthecoursecontributemost?Reading1026.3Writing25.3Listening1026.3 Speaking1642.6Theme2:CulturalAwarenessOneofthemainobjectivesofthecultureclasswastoraiseawarenessoflanguagelearnersaboutthetargetlanguageculture.Thisobjectivewasalsomentionedasabenefitoflearningcultureintheintroduction.InTable3below,theparticipantsexpressedviewsregardingawarenessraisingofthetargetcultureaswellastheirs.Table3ItemNo.ItemResponsesFrequency%3Didthiscoursehelpyouraiseawarenessaboutbothyourowntargetandcultures?Yes2668.4No1231.6Theme3:AttitudetowardstheTargetCultureTable4ItemNo.ItemResponsesFrequency%4Didyourattitudetowardstargetculturechangeattheendofthiscourse?Yes2873.7No1026.3HavingalookatTable4above,wecanseethatnearly75%oftheparticipantsexpressedpositivethoughtsregardingitem.Theculturecourseseemstohavesucceededinaccomplishingataskwithsomehumanizingeffect. III.TheHistoryOFCultureTeachingAsLessard-Clouston(1997)notes,inthepast,peoplelearnedaforeignlanguagetostudyitsliterature,andthiswasthemainmediumofculture.‘[I]twasthroughreadingthatstudentslearnedofthecivilizationassociatedwiththetargetlanguage’(Flewelling,1993:339,citedinLessard-Clouston,1997).Inthe1960sand1970s,sucheminentscholarsasHall(1959),Nostrand(1974),Seelye([1974]1984),andBrooks(1975)madeanendeavortobaseforeignlanguagelearningonauniversalgroundofemotionalandphysicalneeds,sothat‘theforeignculture[wouldappear]lessthreateningandmoreaccessibletothelanguagelearner’(Kramsch,1993:224).Intheheydayoftheaudio-lingualerainlanguageteaching,Brooks(1968)‘emphasizedtheimportanceofculturenotforthestudyofliteraturebutforlanguagelearning’,asSteele(1989:155)hasobserved.Earlieron,Brooks(1960)inhisseminalworkLanguageandLanguageLearninghadofferedsixty-fourtopicsregardingcultureinterspersedwithquestionscoveringseveralpages.These‘horsd’oeuvres’,ashecalledthem,concerned,especially,suchcrucialaspectsofcultureasgreetings,expletives,personalpossessions,cosmetics,tobaccoandsmoking,verbaltaboos,cafes,bars,andrestaurants,contrastsintownandcountrylife,patternsofpoliteness,keepingwarmandcool,medicineanddoctors[…]Inasense,hisgroundbreakingworkwasconducivetoashiftoffocusfromteachinggeographyandhistoryaspartoflanguagelearningtoananthropologicalapproachtothestudyofculture.Whatisimportantisthat,bymakingthedistinctionbetween“CulturewithaCapitalC”—art,music,literature,politicsandsoon—and“culturewithasmallc”—thebehavioralpatternsandlifestylesofeverydaypeople—hehelpeddispelthemyththatculture(orcivilizationorLandeskunde,orwhatothernameitisknownby,(seeByram,1994))isanintellectualgiftbestowedonlyupontheelite.Admittedly,themainthrustofhisworkwastomakepeopleawarethatcultureresidesintheveryfabricoftheirlives—theirtemporarycompromising,theirbeliefs,assumptions,andattitudes—ratherthaninapreoccupationwithaestheticreflectionsorhigh-exaggeratedideas.AsWeaverinsightfullyremarks,thecommonlyheldnotionofcultureislargelyconcernedwithitsinsignificantaspects,whereasouractualinteractionwithittakesplaceatasubconsciouslevel.Manypeoplethinkofcultureaswhatisoftencalled“highculture”—art,literature,music,andthelike.Thiscultureissetintheframeworkofhistoryandofsocial,political,andeconomicstructures….Actually,themostimportantpartofcultureforthesojourneristhatwhichisinternalandhidden…,butwhichgovernsthebehaviortheyencounter.Thisdimensionofculturecanbeseenasanicebergwiththetipstickingabovethewaterlevelofconsciousawareness.Byfarthemostsignificantpart,however,isunconsciousorbelowthewaterlevelofawarenessand includesvaluesandthoughtpatterns.(Weaver,1993:157,citedinKillick&Poveda,1997:221)Itisonlyinthe1980sthatscholarsbegintodelveintothedynamicsofcultureanditsvitalcontributionto‘successful’languagelearning(Byram,Morganetal.,1994:5).Forexample,Littlewood(citedinByram,Morganetal.,1994:6)advocatesthevalueofculturallearning,althoughhestill‘keepslinguisticproficiencyastheoverallaimofcommunicativecompetence’(ibid.).Also,therearemanyinsightfulcomparisonsmadebetweenbehavioralconventionsintheL1andL2societieswhichareculture-specificandwhichcouldbesaidtoimpedeunderstanding:theuseofsilence(Odlin,1989;LaForge,1983:70-81),frequencyofturn-taking(Preston,1989:128-131,Odlin,1989:55),politeness(Odlin,1989:49-54),andsoforth(seeByram,Morganetal.,1994:8)Furthermore,inthe1980sand1990s,advancesinpragmaticsandsociolinguistics(Levinson,1983)layingbaretheveryessenceoflanguage,whichisnolongerthoughtofasmerelydescribingorcommunicatingbut,rather,aspersuading,deceiving,orpunishingandcontrolling(Byram,1989;Fairclough,1989;Lakoff,1990),haverenderedpeople’sframesofreferenceandculturalschematatentative,andledtoattemptsat‘bridgingtheculturalgapinlanguageteaching’(Valdes,1986).Ontheassumptionthatcommunicationisnotonlyanexchangeofinformationbutalsoahighlycognitiveaswellasaffectiveandvalue-ladenactivity,Melde(1987)holdsthatforeignlanguageteachingshouldfoster‘criticalawareness’ofsociallife—aviewcommensuratewithFairclough’s(1989and1995)criticaltheory(seealsoByram,Morganetal.,1994).Morespecifically,whenthelearnerunderstandstheperspectivesofothersandisofferedtheopportunitytoreflectonhisownperspectives,‘throughaprocessofreciprocity,therearisesamoraldimension,ajudgmentaltendency,whichisnotdefinedpurelyonformal,logicalgrounds’(Byram,Morganetal.,1994).Tothisend,thelearnerneedstotaketheroleoftheforeigner,sothathemaygaininsightsintothevaluesandmeaningsthatthelatterhasinternalizedandunconsciouslynegotiateswiththemembersofthesocietytowhichhebelongs(ibid.).BesideMelde,Baumgratz-Gangl(1990)assertsthattheintegrationofvaluesandmeaningsoftheforeignculturewiththoseofone’s“nativeculture”canbringaboutashiftofperspectiveorthe‘recognitionofcognitivedissonance’(Byram,Morganetal.),bothconducivetoreciprocityandempathy.Whatismore,Swaffar(1992)acknowledgesthecontributionofculturewhenhesaysthat,inordertocombat,asitwere,‘culturaldistance’,studentsmustbeexposedtoforeignliteraturewithaviewtodevelopingtheabilitytoputintoquestionandevaluatetheculturalelementsL2textsaresuffusedwith.Kramsch(1993,1987a)alsobelievesthatcultureshouldbetaughtasaninterpersonalprocess and,ratherthanpresentingculturalfacts,teachersshouldassistlanguagelearnersincomingtogripswiththe‘otherculture’(Singhal,1998).Shemaintainsthat,byvirtueoftheincreasingmulticulturalismofvarioussocieties,learnersshouldbemadeawareofcertainculturalfactorsatwork,suchasage,gender,andsocialclass,providedthattheformerusuallyhavelittleornosystematicknowledgeabouttheirmembershipinagivensocietyandculture,nordotheyhaveenoughknowledgeaboutthetargetculturetobeabletointerpretandsynthesizetheculturalphenomenapresented.(Kramsch,1988b)Fromalltheabove,itisevidentthat,muchastheelementofculturehasgainedmomentuminforeignlanguagelearning,mosteducatorshaveseenitasyetanotherskillatthedisposalofthosewhoaspiretobecomeconversantwiththehistoryandlifeofthetargetcommunityratherthanasanintegralpartofcommunicativecompetenceandinterculturalawarenessatwhichevery“educatedindividual”shouldaim.Ashasbeenintimatedabove,thepresentpapertakesathirdperspective,inclaimingthatculturalknowledgeisnotonlyanaspectofcommunicativecompetence,butalsoaneducationalobjectiveinitsownright.Nevertheless,culturalknowledgeisunlike,say,knowledgeofmathematicsorAncientGreek,inthesensethatitisanall-encompassingkindofknowledgewhich,toacertainextent,hasdetermined—facilitatedorprecluded—allothertypesof“knowledge.”Ratherthanviewingculturalknowledgeasaprerequisiteforlanguageproficiency,itismoreimportanttoviewitas‘thecommunity’sstoreofestablishedknowledge’(Fowler,1986:19),whichcomprises‘structuresofexpectation’(Tannen,1979:144)withwhicheveryonebelongingtoacertaingroupisexpectedtounconsciouslyandunerringlycomply.Aswillbeshown,though,languageandculturearesointricatelyrelatedthattheirboundaries,ifany,areextremelyblurredanditisdifficulttobecomeawareoftheassumptionsandexpectationsthatwehold,letalonequestions.Itshouldbereiteratedthatlanguageteachingiscultureteaching,andwhatthenextchapterwillsetouttoshowisthat,‘byteachingalanguage…oneisinevitablyalreadyteachingcultureimplicitly’(McLeod,1976:212),andgaininginsightsintotheforeignlanguageshouldautomaticallypresupposeimmersionintheforeignculture,insofarasthesetwo,languageandculture,gohandinhand. IV.CulturalTeachinginCollegeEnglishProgram4.1.ObjectiveofCultureTeachingBeforewegetdownintocultureteaching,weneedfirstunderstandwhattheobjectiveofcultureteachingis.Languagelearnersneedtobeaware,forexample,oftheculturallyappropriatewaystoaddresspeople,expressgratitude,makerequests,andagreeordisagreewithsomeone.Theyshouldknowthatbehaviorsandintonationpatternsthatareappropriateintheirownspeechcommunitymightbeperceiveddifferentlybymembersofthetargetlanguagespeechcommunity.Theyhavetounderstandthat,inorderforcommunicationtobesuccessful,languageusemustbeassociatedwithotherculturallyappropriatebehavior.Inmanyregards,cultureistaughtimplicitly,imbeddedinthelinguisticformsthatstudentsarelearning.Tomakestudentsawareoftheculturalfeaturesreflectedinthelanguage,teacherscanmakethoseculturalfeaturesanexplicittopicofdiscussioninrelationtothelinguisticformsbeingstudied.AnEnglishasasecondlanguageteachercouldhelpstudentsunderstandsociallyappropriatecommunication,suchasmakingrequeststhatshowrespect;forexample,“Heyyou,comehere”maybealinguisticallycorrectrequest,butitisnotaculturallyappropriatewayforastudenttoaddressateacher.Studentswillmasteralanguageonlywhentheylearnbothitslinguisticandculturalnorms.Accordingtothem,theteachingofculturehasthefollowinggoalsandisofandinitselfameansofaccomplishingthem:·Tohelpstudentstodevelopanunderstandingofthefactthatallpeopleexhibitculturallyconditionedbehaviors.·Tohelpstudentstodevelopanunderstandingthatsocialvariablessuchasage,sex,socialclass,andplaceofresidenceinfluencethewaysinwhichpeoplespeakandbehave.·Tohelpstudentstobecomemoreawareofconventionalbehaviorincommonsituationsinthetargetculture.·Tohelpstudentstoincreasetheirawarenessoftheculturalconnotationsofwordsandphrasesinthetargetlanguage.·Tohelpstudentstodeveloptheabilitytoevaluateandrefinegeneralizationsaboutthetargetculture,intermsofsupportingevidence.·Tohelpstudentstodevelopthenecessaryskillstolocateandorganizeinformationaboutthetargetculture.·Tostimulatestudents’intellectualcuriosityaboutthetargetculture,andto encourageempathytowardsitspeople.ThislistofgoalsisdefinitelyanimprovementonHuebener’s(1959:182-183)listof‘desirableoutcomes’.Atanyrate,theaimofteachingcultureis‘toincreasestudents’awarenessandtodeveloptheircuriositytowardsthetargetcultureandtheirown,helpingthemtomakecomparisonsamongcultures’(Tavares&Cavalcanti,1996:19).Thesecomparisons,ofcourse,arenotmeanttounderestimateforeignculturesbuttoenrichstudents’experienceandtosensitizethemtoculturaldiversity.‘Thisdiversityshouldthenbeunderstoodandrespected,andneveroverorunderestimated.Inthenextchapter,wewillconsiderdifferentwaysofteaching(about)culture.AsKramsch(1993:245)succinctlyputsit,teachers’andlearners’taskis‘tounderstandinevermoresensitivewayswhytheytalkthewaytheydo,andwhytheyremainsilent:thistypeofknowledgeCliffordGeertz[1983]callslocalknowledge’. 4.2.ContentofCultureTeachingWhenweareclearabouttheobjectiveofcultureteaching.Wecometotheissueofthecontentofculturethatweshouldteach.Culturehasmanyaspects,bigandsmall.Whatarethemajorpartsthatneedtobelearntasaforeignlanguagelearner?ValuesandnormsValuesarerelativelygeneralbeliefsthateitherdefineswhatisrightandwhatiswrongorspecifygeneralpreferences.Abeliefthathomicideiswrongandapreferenceformodemartarebothvalues.Norms,ontheotherhand,arerelativelypreciserulesspecifyingwhichbehaviorsarepermittedandwhichprohibitedforgroupmembers.Notethatineverydayusage,"norm"hasaquitedifferentmeaning(itmeansaverage).Hereagainsociologyhasconstructeditsvocabularybyattachinganewmeaningtoafamiliarword.Whenamemberofagroupbreaksagroupnormbyengaginginaprohibitedbehavior,theothergroupmemberswilltypicallysanctionthedeviantmember.Tosanctionistocommunicatedisapprovalinsomewaytothedeviantmember.Whenaskedtogiveexamplesofanorminoursociety,moststudentstendtothinkoflaws,especially,forinstance,lawsagainstmurderandphysicalassault.Mostlawsinasocietyareindeedsocialnorms.Themoreimportantpoint,however,isthatyourlifeisgovernedbymanynormsthatarenotlaws.Considerthefollowingcase.Youfeelveryclosetosomeonewhohasgivenyoueveryreasontobelievethatheorsheisaclosefriend.Youthenfindoutthatthatpersonhassystematicallyliedtoyouinordertogainsomeadvantage.Howwouldyoufeel?Quitehurt,certainly.Mostpeoplewouldalsofeelthatthatperson’sbehaviorwaswrong.Why?Becausemostpeopleinthissocietybelievethataclosefriendshouldneitherdeceivenorexploit.Abehavioralnormthatfollowsfromthisbeliefisthatsomeoneclaimingtobeyourfriendshouldnotlietoyouinordertogainsomeadvantage.Notethatyourfriendhasprobablynotdoneanythingillegal(thatis,nolawshavebeenbroken),butyouwouldconsiderhisorherbehaviortobewrongnonetheless.Youareusuallynotaware,inanyexplicitway,ofmanyofthenormsthatstructureyourbehavior.Forinstance,thereisoneparticularnormthatstrictlyregulatesyourdailybehavior.Itissostronglyheldthatformeeventosuggestthatyoumightviolateitwillmakemostreadersofthischaptersomewhatill.AlthoughstudentscanrarelyguesswhatnormIamtalkingabout,itisonethatisveryeasyto express:inthisculture,thereisastrongprohibitionagainstcomingintocontactwiththebodilydischarges(apolitetermforsuchthingsasurine,feces,pus,vomit,andmucus)ofotherindividuals.Considerhowmanytimes,inagivendayyougotogreatlengthstomakeitunlikelythatotherswillcomeintocontactwithyourbodilydischarges.Thinktooofhowsickandrepulsedyouwouldbeifthisnormwerebroken,ifyouactuallydidcomeintocontactwiththebodilydischargesofsomeotherperson.Peopleinthisculture,ofcourse,liketothinkofthemselvesaspractical,andsowouldprobablyattributethisaversiontobodilydischargestoprinciplesofgoodhygiene.Whatiswrongwithsuchanexplanationisthefactthatthisaversionwaspresentinourculturelongbeforewebecameawarethatdiseasescouldbespreadbygerms.Moreover,therearemanypre-industrialculturesthathavenonotionofthegermtheoryofdiseasebutthatdohavethissamestrongaversion.Butthemainpointbroughthomebythisexampleisthat,althoughthisnormisonethatisrarelydiscussedorthoughtaboutinanexplicitmanner,itdoesregulatemuchofourbehavioreachday.Asanotherexampleoftheimplicitnormsgoverningyourbehavior,considerthenormsregulatingsexualbehavior.Whatexactlyarethosenorms?Don’trespondwiththenormsthatyouattributetosupposedlyunenlightenedtypeslikeyourparents.Whatnormsgovernyoursexualbehavior?Somestudentsmightholdtothenormthatspecifiesthatsexualintercourseiscorrectonlywhentwopeoplearemarriedtoeachother,oratleastonlywhenmarriageisexpectedtooccurinthenearfuture.Themajorityofstudentsverylikelydonot.Certainlyoneoftheminimalconditionsyouwouldimposeisthattobe"right"sexualintercoursemustoccurwiththeconsentofbothpartners.But,inthisliberalage,arethereanyotherconditions?Yes.Anumberofsurveys(reviewedinHobart,1979)indicatethatCanadianuniversitystudents,especiallyfemalestudents,doaddonemorecondition.Sexualintercourseismost"right"whenthetwoindividualsareinlove,oratleastwherethereissomeevidenceofstrongaffection.Thisisnottosaythatsexualintercoursewithoutaffectiondoesnotoccur,butthatthepreferredbehaviorformanystudentsissexualintercoursebetweenconsentingindividualswhohaveastrongaffectionforoneanother.Thesefewexamples,ofcourse,donotevenbegintoexhaustthelistofnormsthatregulateyourdailybehavior.Butassoonasyoudobegintolistthenormsthatregulateyourbehavior,itbecomesclearthatsomeseemmoreimportantthanothers.Forsociologiststhecrucialdifferencebetweenimportantandless-than-importantnormsliesinthenatureofthereactionofgroupmemberswhenthenormisviolated byanindividualmember.Sumner(1940)longagointroducedtwoterms,folkwaysandmores,inordertocapturethisdistinction.Folkwaysarethosenormsthatdonotevokeseveremoralcondemnationwhenviolated.Wearingclothesisprobablyafolkwayformostpeople.Ifyousawsomeonerunningaroundcampusnaked,youmightfeelembarrassed,amused,ortitillated,butnotmorallyoutraged.Moresarethosenormswhoseviolationdoesprovokestrongmoralcondemnation.Ourstrongmoralcondemnationofrapeandmurder,forinstance,suggeststhatthenormsprohibitingthesebehaviorsaremores.Itmustbeemphasizedthatthedifferencebetweenmoresandfolkwaysliesinthenatureofthereactiontheviolationofthenormproduces,andnotinthecontentoftherule.Forinstance,oneofthenormsinoursocietyisthat"dogsshouldnotbeeaten"whileoneofthenormsincontemporaryIndiaisthat"cowsshouldnotbeeaten."Thesetwonormsaresimilarincontent,butoneisafolkway,theotheramores.Youmaybeupsetifyouhearthatsomeonehaseatenadog,butyouareunlikelytobemorallyoutraged.YetthatsenseofmoraloutrageisexactlywhatwouldbeevokedinIndiaweresomeonetoopenlyslaughter,cook,andeatasacredcow.Incidentally,theprohibitionagainsttheeatingofdogsisanothergoodexampleofanimplicitnorminthisculture.Dogsarebothedible,asevidencedbythefactthattheyareeateninmanycultures,andplentiful.Yetnobodyreadingthisbookislikelytohaveeatenoneortohaveknownsomeonewhohas.Furthermore,mostofyouprobablyfindthewholeideaofeatingadogsomewhatrepulsive.Thatabehaviorsoeasytoperformisrarely,ifever,observedinagroup,andthatgroupmembersfindtheveryideaofthatbehaviortoberepulsive,aresureindicationsthatthebehaviorviolatesagroupnorm.SocialrolesAsocialroleisaclusterofexpectationsaboutthebehaviorthatisappropriateforagivenindividualinagivensituation.Forinstance,mostofusexpectthatateacherwillcometoclassprepared,willassigngradesfairly,willnotshowuptoclassdrunk,etc.Theseexpectations,takenasasum,definetherole"teacher."(Asanexercise,youmighttrytothinkoftheexpectationsthatdefinetherole"student"atthecollegelevel.)Whetherornotaparticularsocialroleexistsdependsuponthegroupunderconsideration.Doyouandyourfriendsexpectcertainbehaviorsfrommalesanddifferentbehaviorsfromfemales?Iftheanswerisyes,thenforyouandyourfriends,"male"and"female"arenotsimplybiologicalcategoriesbutalsosocialroles.Butiftheanswerisno,thenforyou,"male"and"female"arenotsocialroles.Doyouand yourfriendsexpectcertainbehaviorsfromsomeonewhomyouloveandwholovesyouinreturn?Iftheanswerisyes,then"lover"isasocialroleinyourfriendshipgroup,andiftheanswerisno,itisnot.Amoment"sreflectionwillindicatethatonepersoncanoccupyseveraldifferentsocialrolesatonce.Whatroleshaveyouoccupiedduringthepastweek?Brother?Sister?Student?Friend?Enemy?Male?Female?Son?Daughter?Thisplayingofseveralrolesatonceopensthewayforroleconflicts,thatis,situationsinwhichthebehavioralexpectationsassociatedwithoneofaperson’srolesareinconsistentwiththebehavioralexpectationsassociatedwithanotherofhisorherroles.Someoftheclearestexamplesofroleconflictinvolvetherole“mother."Ifwedefine"mother"insociological(ratherthanbiological)terms,thenafrequentexpectationassociatedwiththemotherroleisthatshewillhaveprimaryresponsibilityfortherearingofherchildren.Theneedtocareforchildren,oreventheneedtoarrangeforthecareofchildrendayinanddayout,quiteofteninterfereswiththeabilitytoworkoutsidethehome.Thus,thereisthepotentialforroleconflictbetweenthemotherroleandthefull-timeworkerrole.(Weshallhavemoretosayonthistopicinthefamilychapter.)Instudyingroleswemustalwayskeepinmindthatallsocialroles,withoutexception,aresocialdefinitions,andthus,toacertainextent,arbitrary.Thismeansthatrolesthatwetakeforgrantedinourownculturemaynotexistinthesameforminothercultures.Hereagainaconsiderationofthe“mother"roleisaparticularlygoodexampleformakingthegeneralpoint.Inourculture,thetraditionaldefinitionofthe"mother"rolesuggeststhatmothersaresupposedtoprovidetheirchildrenwithemotionalsupport,especiallywhenthechildrenarehurtandfrightened,tonursethemwhentheyarefirst-born(witheitherbreastorbottle),andtoprovidethemwithguidanceastheygrow.Somemembersofoursocietymightevenregardthesebehaviorsasnatural,asresultingfromaninnatetendencyinmostwomentowardsmothering.Thisisjustnottrue.Drummond(1978)studiedseveralgroups,alllocatedinEnglish-speakingcountries,inwhichallthesebehaviorsareassignedtosomeoneotherthanthechildren’sbiologicalmothers.PriortotheVictorianerainEngland,forinstance,thetaskofbreastfeedingupperclasschildrenwasoftenhandedovertoawet-nurse,withthechildrenonlylaterbeingturnedovertothebiologicalmothertoberaised.DuringtheVictorianera,anupperclasswomanmightnurseherownchildren,butthetaskofcaringforthemandprovidingthemwithguidancethenbecametheresponsibilityofananny.Butobviously,ifthebehaviorsthatforusareall associatedwiththesinglerolemotherweresplitupandgiventoanytwoorthreeseparatewomen(thebiologicalmother,thewet-nurse,thenanny),thentherewasnosinglesocialroleamongtheEnglishupperclassesthattrulycorrespondstothemotherroleinourownculture.ThesituationisevenmorecomplicatedamongtheEnglish-speakinglowerclassinGuyana,aSouthAmericancountryalsoconsideredbyDrummond.Herethetypicalfamilyismadeupofanunmarriedwoman,herdaughters(alsounmarried),andherdaughters"children.Askchildreninourownsocietytopickouttheirmotherandtheywillpointtotheirbiologicalmother.AskchildreninaGuyanesefamilytopickouttheirmotherandtheywillpointtothepersonwewouldcallgrandmother.TheEnglishtermappliedtothewomanwhogivesbirthtoaGuyanesechildis"auntie"not,“mother."Thisthenrepresentsacaseinwhichthereisarolethatcloselycorrespondstothemotherroleinourownsociety,butinGuyanathatroleisoccupiedbythebiologicalgrandmother,notbythebiologicalmother.Rememberthegeneralpointthattheseexamplesaremeanttoillustrate:everyroleisaclusterofexpectationsaboutbehavior,butthisclusteringvariesfromculturetoculture.Thatourownculturegroupstogethercertainbehavioralexpectationsinordertoformaparticularroledoesnotguaranteethatothercultureswillgroupthosesameexpectationstogetherinthesamewaytoformthesamerole. 4.3.CultureIncorporation-PrinciplesAndSpecificTechniquesInCultureTeachingAquestiongermanetoourdiscussionis,howcanweincorporatecultureintotheforeignlanguagecurriculum,withaviewtofosteringculturalawarenessandcommunicatinginsightintothetargetcivilization?Inthepast,thishasbeenattemptedbydintofdiscoursinguponthegeographicalenvironmentandhistoricalorpoliticaldevelopmentoftheforeignculture,itsinstitutionsandcustoms,itsliteraryachievements,eventheminutedetailsoftheeverydaylifeofitsmembers.Atothertimes,insightsintothetargetcommunityhavetakentheformof‘lecturettes’(seeRivers,1968:272)ora“homily”onsuchissuesasmarriagecustomsandceremonies,festivals,Sundayexcursions,andsoforth,thusrenderingthestudyoftheforeigncultureatediousandunrewardingtask.Admittedly,wecannotteachcultureanymorethanwecanteachanyonehowtobreathe.Whatwecando,though,istrytoshowtheway,toteachaboutcultureratherthantopositaspecificwayofseeingthings--whichiscorollaryandancillarytoculturalandlinguisticimperialism.Bybringingtotheforesomeelementsofthetargetculture,andfocusingonthosecharacteristicsandtraitsthatareofimportancetothemembersofthetargetcommunity—refrainingfromtakinganoutsider’sview—teacherscanmakestudentsawarethattherearenosuchthingsassuperiorandinferiorculturesandthattherearedifferencesamongpeoplewithinthetargetculture,aswell.‘[Teachersare]notintheclassroomtoconfirmtheprejudicesof[their]studentsnortoattacktheirdeeplyheldconvictions’(ibid.:271).Theirtaskistostimulatestudents’interestinthetargetculture,andtohelpestablishtheforeignlanguageclassroom‘notsomuchasaplacewherethelanguageistaught,butasonewhereopportunitiesforlearningofvariouskindsareprovidedthroughtheinteractionsthattakeplacebetweentheparticipants’(Ellis,1992:171,citedinKramsch,1993:245).AccordingtoStraub(1999),whateducatorsshouldalwayshaveinmindwhenteachingcultureistheneedtoraisetheirstudents’awarenessoftheirownculture,toprovidethemwithsomekindofmetalanguageinordertotalkaboutculture,and‘tocultivateadegreeofintellectualobjectivityessentialincross-culturalanalyses’(ibid.:5).Whatismore,anotherobjectivepermeatingtheteachingofcultureis‘tofoster…understandingofthetargetculturefromaninsider’sperspective—anempatheticviewthatpermitsthestudenttoaccuratelyinterpretforeignculturalbehaviors’(ibid.).Priortoconsideringsomeconcretetechniquesforteachingcultureintheforeignlanguageclassroom,itisusefultoattemptananswertothequestionposedatthebeginningofthischapterbyprovidingsomeguidelinesforculture teaching(mostofthediscussionthatensuesismainlybasedonLessard-Clouston,1997).First,cultureteachingmustbecommensuratewiththedynamicaspectsofculture.AsLessard-Clouston(1997)notes,studentswillindeedneedtodevelopknowledgeofandabouttheL2orFLculture,butthisreceptiveaspectofculturalcompetenceisnotsufficient.Learnerswillalsoneedtomastersomeskillsinculturallyappropriatecommunicationandbehaviorforthetargetculture…Culturalawarenessisnecessaryifstudentsaretodevelopanunderstandingofthedynamicnatureofthetargetculture,aswellastheirownculture.Second,itisimportanttoeschewwhatLessard-Clouston(1997)calls‘alaissez-faireapproach’,whenitcomestoteachingmethodology,anddealwithcultureteachinginasystematicandstructuredway.Third,evaluationofculturelearningisanecessarycomponentofthe“foreignculturecurriculum,”providingstudentswithfeedbackandkeepingteachersaccountableintheirteaching.AfourthpointismadebyCruz,Bonissone,andBaff(1995)pertainingtotheexpressneedforlinguisticandculturalcompetenceasameansofachievingandnegotiatingnations’politicalandeconomicalidentitiesinan‘evershrinkingworld’,astheyputit.Ourworldhaschanged,butinmanywaysourschoolshavenot.Linguisticandculturalabilitiesareattheforefrontofourever-shrinkingworld.Yetwecontinuetoshyawayfromaddressingtheseveryrealglobalnecessities.Justasnoonesuperpowercandominatewithoutcensurefromothers,citizensmustnowbegintoseetheirglobalresponsibilitiesandmustlearntomovecomfortablyfromoneculturalenvironmenttothenext.Persuasionratherthanarmedcoercionhasbecomethewaytodothingspoliticallyandeffectivepersuasionrequiresthatoneknowtheotherparty’svaluesandmannerofestablishingrapport.Apparently,culturecanbecomeathird(orsecond,forthatmatter)“superpower”dispensingjusticeandhelpingmaintainstabilityandequilibriumifneedbe.Acursoryglanceatmosttextbooksnowadaysisampletoshowwhateducatorsmustfirstcombatanderadicate:stereotypes.AsByram,Morganetal.(1994:41)observe,‘[textbookwriters]intuitivelyavoidbringinglearners’existinghetero-stereotypesintotheopenandhopethat[their]negativeovertones…willbe…counteractedbypresentingpositive…imagesoftheforeigncountry’.Asamatteroffact,stereotypesareextremelytenacious,insofaraspeoplefromdifferentcultureshavetheirownschematathroughwhichtheyconceptualizeandunderstandtheworld,andtostepintoanothercultureis‘todenysomethingwithintheirownbeing.Inordertoprovideadifferentperspectiveon“theforeignculture,”teachersshouldusecomparison,withaviewtoidentifyingcommongroundorevenlacunaewithinor betweencultures(seeErtelt-Vieth,1990,1991,citedinByram,Morganetal.,1994:43).Mostcertainly,learnerswillnotrelinquishtheir‘culturalbaggage’(ibid.)andbegintoseetheworld“intheFrench,English,orJapaneseway,”sotospeak.Nevertheless,theycanacknowledgethatany“intellectualantinomies”emanatingfromtheirexposuretothetargetculturearenaturalandbynomeanspernicious.Beforeventuringintounknownterritories(Grove,1982),learnersmustfirstbecomeconversantwithwhatitmeanstobepartofaculture,theirownculture.Byexploringtheirownculture,i.e.,bydiscussingtheveryvalues,expectations,traditions,customs,andritualstheyunconsciouslytakepartin,theyarereadytoreflectuponthevalues,expectations,andtraditionsofothers‘withahigherdegreeofintellectualobjectivity’(Straub,1999).Dependingontheageandlevelofthelearners,thistaskcantakemanyforms.Forexample,youngbeginnersorintermediatestudentsshouldbegiventheopportunitytoenjoycertainactivitiesthatarepartoftheirowntradition,suchasnationalsports,socialfestivities,orsongs,beforesettingaboutexploringthoseofthetargetculture.Here,wewillonlybeconcernedwiththelatter.‘Beginningforeignlanguagestudentswanttofeel,touch,smell,andseetheforeignpeoplesandnotjustheartheirlanguage’(Peck,1998).Atanyrate,theforeignlanguageclassroomshouldbecomea‘culturalisland’(Kramsch,1993;Singhal,1998;Peck,1998),wheretheaccentwillbeon‘culturalexperience’ratherthan‘culturalawareness’(seeByram,Morganetal.,1994:55-60).Fromthefirstday,teachersareexpectedtobringintheclassposters,pictures,maps,andotherthingsinordertohelpstudentsdevelop‘amentalimage’ofthetargetculture(Peck,1998).AccordingtoPeck(1998),aneffectiveandstimulatingactivityistosendstudentson“culturalerrands”(myterm)—tosupermarketsanddepartmentstores—andhavethemwritedownthenamesofimportedgoods.Moreover,teacherscanalsoinviteguestspeakers,whowilltalkabouttheirexperiencesoftheforeigncountry.Anotherinsightfulactivityistodividetheclassintogroupsofthreeorfourandhavethemdrawupalistofthosecharacteristicsandtraitsthatsupposedlydistinguishthehomeandtargetcultures.Tomalin&Stempleski(1993:16)provideasampleofthekindofliststudentscouldproduce:Music,race,nationalorigin,geography,architecture,customs,artsandcrafts,clothingphysicalfeaturesfood.Inthisway,itbecomeseasierforteachersandstudentstoidentifyany“stereotypicallapses”andpreconceivedideasthattheyneedtodisabusethemselvesof.Tothisend,oncemajordifferenceshavebeenestablished,studentscanbeintroducedtosome‘keywords’(Williams,1983),suchas“marriage,”“death,”“homosexuality,”etc.,andthusbeassistedintakinganinsider’sviewoftheconnotationsofthesewordsandconcepts.Inotherwords,they canquerytheirownassumptionsandtrytoseetheunderlyingsignificanceofaparticulartermorwordinthetargetlanguageandculture.Forexample,inEnglishculture,bothanimalsandhumanshavefeelings,getsick,andareburiedincemeteries.InHispanicculture,however,thedistinctionbetweenhumansandanimalsisgreat,andbullfightingishighlyunlikelytobeseenasawasteoftime,asmanywesternspectatorsareapttosay.ForSpanishpeople,abullisnotequaltothemanwhokillsit—abeliefthathastheeffectofexonerating,sotospeak,thebullfighterfromallresponsibility;abullcanbestrongbutnotintelligentorskilful;thesearequalitiesattributedtohumanbeings.Inthislight,notionssuchas“cruel,”“slaughter,”or“beingdefenseless”carryvastlydifferentundertonesinthetwocultures(seeLado,1986).Besides,thewaylanguageandsocialvariablesinterpenetrateshouldinformcultureteachingintheforeignlanguageclassroom.Themainpremiseisthatlanguagevariesaccordingtosocialvariables,suchassex,age,socialclass,location[…],andtheconcomitantregisterdifferencesshouldnotgounnoticed.Forexample,studentscanbetaughtthattherearecertainwordsusedmorebywomenthanbymen,andviceversa,andthattherearealsodifferentdialectswhichmaynotenjoyequaladulationandprestige(forexample,CockneyasopposedtoReceivedPronunciationinEngland)(seeHenrichsen,1998).Throughexposuretotheforeigncivilization,studentsinescapablydrawsomecomparisonsbetweenthehomeandtargetculture.‘Culturalcapsules’(Singhal,1998,andothers),alsoknownas‘culturegrams’(Peck,1998),attempttohelpinthisrespect,presentinglearnerswithisolateditemsaboutthetargetculture,whileusingbooksandothervisualaids.Yet,accordingtoPeck(ibid.),amoreusefulwaytoprovideculturalinformationisbydintofculturalclusters,whichareaseriesofculturecapsules.Seelye(1984)providessuchcapsules,suchasanarrativeontheetiquetteduringafamilymeal.Withthisnarrativeasaspringboardfordiscussionandexperimentation,studentscanpracticehowtoeat,learnhow,andtowhatextent,themembersofthetargetcultureappreciateamealwithfriends,andsoforth.Awordofcaveatiscalledfor,though.Studentsmustnotlosesightofthefactthatnotallmembersofthetargetcommunitythinkandbehaveinthesameway.Henrichsen(1998)proposes,amongothers,twointerestingmethods:cultureassimilatorsandcartoons.Cultureassimilatorscompriseshortdescriptionsofvarioussituationswhereonepersonfromthetargetcultureinteractswithpersonsfromthehomeculture.Thenfollowfourpossibleinterpretationsofthemeaningofthebehaviorandspeechoftheinteractants,especiallythosefromthetargetculture.Oncethestudentshavereadthedescription,theychooseoneofthefouroptionstheythinkisthecorrectinterpretationofthesituation.Wheneverysinglestudenthasmadehischoice,theydiscusswhysomeoptionsarecorrectorincorrect.Themain thrustofcultureassimilatorsisthatthey‘aregoodmethodsofgivingstudentsunderstandingaboutculturalinformationand…mayevenpromoteemotionalempathyoraffectifstudentshavestrongfeelingsaboutoneormoreoftheoptions’(ibid.).Ontheotherhand,cartoonsarevisualcultureassimilators.Studentsareprovidedwithaseriesoffourpictureshighlightingpointsofmisunderstandingorcultureshockexperiencedbypersonsincontactwiththetargetculture.Here,studentsareaskedtoevaluatethecharacters’reactionsintermsofappropriateness(withinthetargetculture).Oncemisunderstandingsaredissipated,learnersreadshorttextsexplainingwhatwashappeninginthecartoonsandwhytherewasmisunderstanding.Nevertheless,muchascartoonsgenerallypromotesunderstandingofculturalfacts….theydonotusuallygiverealunderstandingofemotionsinvolvedinculturalmisunderstandings’(ibid.).Culturalproblemsolvingisyetanotherwaytoprovideculturalinformation(seeSinghal,1998).Inthiscase,learnersarepresentedwithsomeinformationbuttheyareonthehornsofadilemma,sotospeak.Forexample,inanalyzing,say,aTVconversationorreadinganarrativeonmarriageceremonies,theyareexpectedtoassessmannersandcustoms,orappropriateorinappropriatebehavior,andtoemployvariousproblem-solvingtechniques—inshort,todevelopakindof“culturalstrategiccompetence”(myterm).Singhal(1998)setsthescene:studentsareinarestaurantandareexpectedtoorderameal.Inthisway,learnersaregiventheopportunitytostepintotheshoesofamemberofthetargetculture.Indisputably,conventionalbehaviorincommonsituationsisasubjectwithwhichstudentsshouldacquaintthemselves.Forinstance,intheUSAortheUnitedKingdom,itisuncommonforastudentwhoislateforclasstoknockonthedoorandapologizetotheteacher.Rather,thisbehaviorismostlikelytobefrowneduponandhavetheoppositeeffect,eventhoughitiscommonbehaviorintheculturemanystudentscomefrom.Besides,therearesignificantdifferencesacrossculturesregardingthewaysinwhichtheteacherisaddressed;whenastudentissupposedtoraiseherhand;whattopicsareconsideredtabooor“offthemark”;howmuchleewaystudentsareallowedinachievinglearnerautonomy,andsoforth(forfurtherdetails,seeHenrichsen,1998).Alongsidelinguisticknowledge,studentsshouldalsofamiliarizethemselveswithvariousformsofnon-verbalcommunication,suchasgestureandfacialexpressions,typicalinthetargetculture.Morespecifically,learnersshouldbecognizantofthefactthatsuchseeminglyuniversalsignalsasgesturesandfacialexpressions—aswellasemotions—areactuallyculturalphenomena,andmayasoftenasnotleadtomiscommunicationanderroneousassumptions(seeWierzbicka, 1999).Green(1968)furnishessomeexamplesofappropriategesturesinSpanishculture.Aninterestingactivityfocusingonnon-verbalcommunicationisfoundinTomalin&Stempleski(1993:117-119):Theteacherhandsouttwelvepicturesshowinggesturesandtheninvitesthestudentstodiscussandanswersomequestions.Whichgesturesaredifferentfromthoseinthehomeculture?Whichofthegesturesshownwouldbeusedindifferentsituationsorevenavoidedinthehomeculture?Anotheractivitywouldbetoinvitelearnerstorole-playemotions(Tomalin&Stempleski,1993:116-117):Theteacherwritesalistofseveralwordsindicatingemotions(happiness,fear,anger,joy,pain,guilt,sadness)andthenasksthestudentstousefacialexpressionsandgesturestoexpresstheseemotions.Thenfollowsadiscussiononthedifferentwaysinwhichpeoplefromdifferentculturesexpressemotionsaswellasinterpretgesturesas“indices”toemotions.AsStraub(1999:6)succinctlyputsit,byunderstandinghowculturesandsubculturesorco-culturesusethesesignstocommunicate,wecandiscoveraperson’ssocialstatus,groupmembership,andapproachability’.Accordingtohim,itisimportanttoencouragelearnersto‘speculateonthesignificanceofvariousstylesofclothing,thesymbolicmeaningsofcolors,gestures,facialexpressions,andthephysicaldistancepeopleunconsciouslyputbetweeneachother’(ibid.),andtoshowinwhatwaysthesenonverbalcuesaresimilarto,oratvariancewith,thoseoftheirculture.Hereinliestheroleofliteratureintheforeignlanguageclassroom.Ratherthanbeingafifthadjuncttothefourskills(reading,writing,speaking,andlistening),culturecanbestfinditsexpressionthroughthemediumofliterature.AsValdes(1986:137)notes,literatureisaviablecomponentofsecondlanguageprogramsattheappropriateleveland…oneof[its]majorfunctions…istoserveasamediumtotransmitthecultureofthepeoplewhospeakthelanguageinwhichitiswritten.Firstofall,literarytextsareanuntappedresourceofauthenticlanguagethatlearnerscanavailthemselvesof.Exposuretoliteraryworkscanhelpthemtoexpandtheirlanguageawarenessanddeveloptheirlanguagecompetence.Moreover,tryingtointerpretandaccountforthevalues,assumptions,andbeliefsinfusingtheliterarytextsofthetargetcultureisinstrumentalindefiningandredefiningthoseobtaininginthehomeculture(Gantidou,personalcommunication).Ofcourse,literaturecanextendtocovertheuseoffilmandtelevisionintheFLclassroom,forthey‘havethecapacity…topresentlanguageandsituationsimultaneously,thatis,languageinfullycontextualizedform’(Corder,1968,citedinJalling,1968:65).Amajorshortcoming,though,isthattheviewercanonlybeanobserver,notaparticipant.Thereisonlyreactionbutnointeractiononherpart.Whatismore,therearesomedifficultiesregardingthemethodologyofteachingliterature.Carter(1990,citedinCarter&McRae,1996),forexample,cautionsthatalimitedknowledgeof linguisticscouldblindfoldteachersandstudentstothefactthatliterarytextsareholisticartefactswhicharesituatedwithinculturaltraditions,arehistoricallyshapedandgrowoutofthelivedexperiencesofthewriter.4.3.1PrinciplesOfCultureTeachingPRINCIPLEI:StructureProfessionalDevelopmentActivitiesThatFocusonCulturalResponsivenessInconductingpresentationsandtrainingsessions,oneofthefirstquestionsweaskofparticipantsis,“Doyounoticetheraceofyourstudentswhentheywalkintotheclassroom?”Theresponseisconsistent:Ninetyto95percentoftheparticipantsproudlyexclaim,“No!”Beforemovingon,weaskyou,thereader,“Doyounoticetheraceofyourstudentswhentheywalkintotheclassroom?”Professionaldevelopmentactivitiesshouldtraineducatorstoplacestudentsandtheirculturesatthecenteroflearning,andtoacknowledge,respect,andbuildontheknowledge,beliefs,andexperiencesthatstudentsbringwiththemtotheclassroom(McPhail&McPhail,1999).Communitycollegescanofferprofessionaldevelopmenttohelpfacultyplacecultureatthecenteroflearning;andtoidentifytheirconcernsaboutworkingwithdiverselearning,creatinganenvironmentwhereallstakeholdersfeelcomfortabledealingwithdiversity,andinstitutionalizingacommitmenttoinclusionofdiversityatalllevelswithintheinstitution.QUESTIONSTOPONDER1.Dotheprofessionaldevelopmentinitiativesatyourinstitutiontrainfacultymemberstoplacethestudents"cultureatthecenteroflearning?How?2.Dotheprofessionaldevelopmentinitiativesatyourinstitutionallowforanopenandhonestdiscussionaboutrace?How?3.Areprofessionaldevelopmentinitiativesatyourinstitutionanongoingandcontinuouseffort?4.DotheprofessionaldevelopmentinitiativesatyourinstitutiontrainfacultymembershowtoeffectivelyteachAfrican-Americanlearners?PRINCIPLE2:EnsureThatAllFacultyRespecttheCultureofTheirStudents Oncefacultymembersbecomecomfortableacknowledgingtheraceoftheirstudentsandaccepttheirculturaldifferences,facultymembersarebetterequippedtoteachAfrican-Americanlearners.CommunitycollegescanuseprofessionaldevelopmenttoprovideanavenuethatallowsfacultymemberstoassesstheirattitudesandbeliefstowardteachingAfrican-Americanlearners.Institutionsmayadministerinstrumentsorhireaconsultanttofacilitatetheadministrationofthistypeofassessment.Oncethisassessmentiscomplete,strategiescanbedevelopedtotrainfacultytobecomemoreculturallyresponsive.CollegescanalsoprovideprofessionaldevelopmentinitiativesthateducatefacultyaboutthecultureoftheAfricanAmerican,including,forexample,learningstyles,culturalheritage,norms,beliefs,andpractices.Providingmeaningfulprofessionaldevelopmentprogramstohelpfacultydealwiththeirbeliefsandattitudesaboutteachingdiverselearnerswillhelptoensurethatthelearningneedsofalllearnersareaddressed.QUESTIONSTOPONDER1.Doyourprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesprovidefacultywithameanstoevaluatetheirownattitudes,beliefs,andperceptionsaboutAfricanAmericans?How?2.Doyouacknowledgeyourstudents"racialidentities?Areyoucomfortabledoingso?3.Doyouthinkthatacknowledgingtheraceofyourstudentsmakesyouracistorprejudiceyouinsomeway?Why?PRINCIPLE3:ValueandCelebrateCulture–PromoteCulturalSensitivityValuingastudent"scultureintheclassroomisanotherfrequentlycitedfactorforsuccessfullyteachingAfrican-Americanlearners.Culturedetermineshowonethinks,behaves,andbelieves,andthisinturnaffectshowfacultyteachesandlearns.Facultywhoarecognizantoftheirownthoughtsandbehaviorsincross-culturalinteractionarebetterpreparedtorespondinwaysthatwillimproveteachingandlearninginculturallydiverseclassrooms.CulturalsensitivityinvolvestheacceptancethatAfrican-Americanstudentshaveadistinctcultureandlearningstylethatshouldbevalued,promoted,andembracedintheclassroom.Cultureisattheheartofwhatallfacultiesdointhenameofeducation,whetheritiscurriculum,instruction,administration,orperformanceassessment(Gay,2000). Theimportanceofcreatingalearningenvironmentwherefacultymembersarecomfortabledealingwithallbarrierstothelearningprocesscannotbeoverstated.Afirmfoundationinculturallyresponsiveteachingcreatesanenvironmentthatrespondstotheinfluenceofthelearner"scultureonthewaythelearnerlearns.QUESTIONSTOPONDER1.DoesyourinstitutionpromoteanenvironmentwherefacultymemberscanvaluetheculturalexperiencesAfricanAmericansbringtotheclassroomwiththem?Ifyes,how?Ifno,doyouasanindividualfacultymembervaluetheculturalexperiencesAfricanAmericansbringtotheclassroomwiththem?2.Doesyourinstitutionpromoteculturalsensitivitycontinuouslythroughprogramsandservices?How?3.DoyouconsideroraddressAfrican-Americanstudents"needswhenyouaredesigningyourcoursecontent?How?PRINCIPLE4:EmbraceanEmpowermentCultureOuranalysisofenrollmenttrendsinthenation"scommunitycollegessuggeststhatfacultyinthefuturewillencounterevengreaternumbersofdiversestudentpopulations.Thus,communitycollegeswillneedtoacceleratetheirpaceincreatingfacultydevelopmenttrainingtoaddressthisreality.Communitycollegestaffandcurriculumdeveloperscanlookatvariouscross-culturalfaculty-trainingmodelstoassistwithprofessionaldevelopmentoffaculty.WebelievethatprofessionaldevelopmentprogramscouldberesponsivetoAfrican-AmericanandotherunderservedlearnersbyincorporatingMcPhailandMcPhail"sEmpowermentCultureintotheirfacultydevelopmentprograms.TheEmpowermentCulture(McPhail&McPhail,1999)targetedcommunitycollegesthatareattemptingtotransformtheirclassroompracticestomeettheneedsofAfrican-Americanstudents.Communitycollegefacultycancultivateanempowermentcultureby*LearningmoreaboutthecultureofAfrican-Americanstudents,*Listeningtothevoicesoflearners,*Weavingtherealitiesoflearners"livesintothecurriculum,*IncludingpositiverepresentationsoftheAfrican-Americanculturalheritageinthecurriculum,and*Extendingandreformulatingthetheoryofculturalmediationintoinstruction.Byfocusingonthecultureofthelearneralongwithanalysisofthescholarly researchonculturalresponsivenessintheclassroom,communitycollegeswillhaveaviablestrategyforimprovingthelearningexperiencesoftheAfrican-Americanlearner.PRINCIPLE5:CommunicatetheCollege"sCommitmenttoCulturalResponsivenessManyinstitutionsandfacultyarequicktoproclaimtheyarecommittedtoaddressingtheneedsoftheirAfrican-Americanlearners.Thiscommitmentmustextendtohelpingfacultybecomecommittedtoinfusingcultureintothecurriculum,therebybenefitingtheAfrican-Americanlearnerandthecollegeasawhole.Communitycollegescantrainfacultytoinfuseculturethecurriculumbyusingthesestrategies:*Committinghumanandbudgetaryresourcestoinfusingcultureintothecurriculum*Displayingtheinstitution"sdedicationtoinfusingcultureintothecurriculum*Offeringincentivesforfacultytoinfusecultureintothecurriculum*Helpingfacultytoevaluatetheirownconsciousnessandawarenessaboutraceinordertoremovebarriers*Creatingpressurefortransformationoftheinstructionaldeliverysystem,holdingfacultyaccountableforusingthecultureoftheirstudentsintheclassroomandplacingthecultureofstudentsatthecenterofthelearningexperience.QUESTIONSTOPONDER1.Howdoesyourinstitutionshowcommitmenttotheincorporationofcultureintothecurriculum?2.Doesyourinstitutionofferanytypeoftrainingtoitsfaculty,staff,andadministratorsthatspecificallyfocusesonculturaltraining?3.Doyoubelievethatinfusingthestudents"culturalexperiencesintothecurriculumisimportant?4.Doyoubelievethatallstudentscanbenefitfromtheinfusionofcultureintothecurriculum?5.Isthecollege"scommitmenttodiversitywritteninthestrategicplan? PRINCIPLE6:TakeAwayBarriersthatImpedeProgressThebarriersthatmanyAfrican-Americanstudentsencounterarenotalwaysvisible.TheycancomeintheformofhiddencurriculumsuchaspurposefullyignoringAfrican-Americanstudents"contributionstoclassdiscussions;forcingstudentstolearninanenvironmentthatdoesnotsupporttheirlearningstyle;showingnegativepersonalattitudesandbeliefs;constructingcoursesthatminimizethelevelsofinteractionwithstudents,whichlimitsdiscussion;andexpressingincreaseddifferentialexpectations.Eliminatingbarriersisanexerciseofbothmindandmethod.Ittakestimeandinvolvesinstitutionwidecommitment.Wealsobelievethatitisnotanoption,butanopportunitytoaddadeepermeaningtothemissionoftheAmericancommunitycollege.QUESTIONSTOPONDER1.WhatvisibleorinvisiblebarriersareinplaceatyourinstitutionandinyourclassroomthatmayhindertheacademicsuccessofAfrican-Americanlearners?2.Aretherefacultymembersoradministratorsatyourinstitutionwhoopenlyopposeincorporatingcultureintothecurriculum?Whatisbeingdonetohelpthesefacultymembersoradministratorsrecognizethebenefitofthispractice?3.Doyourequirestudentstomodifytheirbehaviorstoaccommodateyourclassroomenvironment?Ifyes,why? 4.3.2.SpecificTechniquesinCultureTeachingInthepartwewillgivesomespecifictechniquesinactualcultureteaching.TeachingCulturewithoutPreconceptionsCulturalinformationshouldbepresentedinanonjudgmentalfashion,inawaythatdoesnotplacevalueorjudgmentondistinctionsbetweenthestudents’nativecultureandthecultureexploredintheclassroom.Kramsch(1993)describesthe“thirdculture”ofthelanguageclassroom—aneutralspacethatlearnerscancreateandusetoexploreandreflectontheirownandthetargetcultureandlanguage.Someteachersandresearchershavefounditeffectivetopresentstudentswithobjectsorideasthatarespecifictothecultureofstudybutareunfamiliartothestudents.Thestudentsaregivencluesorbackgroundinformationabouttheobjectsandideassothattheycanincorporatethenewinformationintotheirownworldview.Anexamplemightbeacookingutensil.Studentswouldbetoldthattheobjectissomehowusedforcooking,andthentheywouldeitherresearchorbeinformedabouthowtheutensilisused.Thiscouldleadintorelateddiscussionaboutfoodseateninthetargetculture,thegeography,growingseasons,andsoforth.Thestudentsactasanthropologists,exploringandunderstandingthetargetcultureinrelationtotheirown.Inthismanner,studentsachievealevelofempathy,appreciatingthatthewaypeopledothingsintheirculturehasitsowncoherence.Itisalsoimportanttohelpstudentsunderstandthatculturesarenotmonolithic.Avarietyofsuccessfulbehaviorsarepossibleforanytypeofinteractioninanyparticularculture.Teachersmustallowstudentstoobserveandexploreculturalinteractionsfromtheirownperspectivestoenablethemtofindtheirownvoicesinthesecondlanguagespeechcommunity.InstructionalStrategiesforTeachingLanguageandCultureCulturalactivitiesandobjectivesshouldbecarefullyorganizedandincorporatedintolessonplanstoenrichandinformtheteachingcontent.Someusefulideasforpresentingcultureintheclassroomaredescribedinthissection.AuthenticMaterialsUsingauthenticsourcesfromthenativespeechcommunityhelpstoengagestudentsinauthenticculturalexperiences.Sourcescanincludefilms,newsbroadcasts,andtelevisionshows;Websites;andphotographs,magazines,newspapers,restaurantmenus,travelbrochures,andotherprintedmaterials.Teacherscanadapttheiruseofauthenticmaterialstosuittheageandlanguage proficiencylevelofthestudents.Forexample,evenbeginninglanguagestudentscanwatchandlistentovideoclipstakenfromatelevisionshowinthetargetlanguageandfocusonsuchculturalconventionsasgreetings.Theteachermightsupplystudentswithadetailedtranslationorgivethemachart,diagram,oroutlinetocompletewhiletheylistentoadialogueorwatchavideo.Aftertheclasshasviewedtherelevantsegments,theteachercanengagethestudentsindiscussionoftheculturalnormsrepresentedinthesegmentsandwhatthesenormsmightsayaboutthevaluesoftheculture.Discussiontopicsmightincludenonverbalbehaviors(e.g.,thephysicaldistancebetweenspeakers,gestures,eyecontact,societalroles,andhowpeopleindifferentsocialrolesrelatetoeachother).Studentsmightdescribethebehaviorstheyobserveanddiscusswhichofthemaresimilartotheirnativecultureandwhicharenotanddeterminestrategiesforeffectivecommunicationinthetargetlanguage.ProverbsDiscussionofcommonproverbsinthetargetlanguagecouldfocusonhowtheproverbsaredifferentfromorsimilartoproverbsinthestudents’nativelanguageandhowdifferencesmightunderscorehistoricalandculturalbackground(Ciccarelli,1996).Usingproverbsasawaytoexploreculturealsoprovidesawaytoanalyzethestereotypesaboutandmisperceptionsoftheculture,aswellasawayforstudentstoexplorethevaluesthatareoftenrepresentedintheproverbsoftheirnativeculture.RolePlayInrole-plays,studentscanactoutamiscommunicationthatisbasedonculturaldifferences.Forexample,afterlearningaboutwaysofaddressingdifferentgroupsofpeopleinthetargetculture,suchaspeopleofthesameageandolderpeople,studentscouldrole-playasituationinwhichaninappropriategreetingisused.Otherstudentsobservetherole-playandtrytoidentifythereasonforthemiscommunication.Theythenrole-playthesamesituationusingaculturallyappropriateformofaddress.CultureCapsulesStudentscanbepresentedwithobjects(e.g.,figurines,tools,jewelry,art)orimagesthatoriginatefromthetargetculture.Thestudentsarethenresponsibleforfindinginformationabouttheiteminquestion,eitherbyconductingresearchorbybeinggivencluestoinvestigate.Theycaneitherwriteabriefsummaryormakeanoralpresentationtotheclassabouttheculturalrelevanceoftheitem.Suchactivitiescanalsoserveasafoundationfromwhichteacherscangoontodiscusslargercultural,historical,andlinguisticfactorsthattieinwiththeobjects.Suchcontextualizationis,infact,importanttothesuccessofusingculturecapsules. StudentsasCulturalResourcesU.S.schoolsaremoreculturallyandethnicallydiversethantheyhaveeverbeen.Exchangestudents,immigrantstudents,orstudentswhospeakthetargetlanguageathomecanbeinvitedtotheclassroomasexpertsources.Thesestudentscanshareauthenticinsightsintothehomeandculturallifeofnativespeakersofthelanguage.EthnographicStudiesAneffectivewayforstudentstolearnaboutthetargetlanguageandcultureistosendthemintotheirowncommunitytofindinformation.Studentscancarryoutethnographicinterviewswithnativespeakersinthecommunity,whichtheycanrecordinnotebooksoronaudiotapesorvideotapes.Discussionactivitiescouldincludeoralfamilyhistories,interviewswithcommunityprofessionals,andstudiesofsocialgroups(Pino,1997).Itisimportanttonotethatactivitiesinvolvingthetarget-languagecommunityrequireagreatdealoftimeonthepartoftheteachertohelpsetthemupandtoofferongoingsupervision.LiteratureLiterarytextsareoftenrepletewithculturalinformationandevokememorablereactionsforreaders.Textsthatarecarefullyselectedforagivengroupofstudentsandwithspecificgoalsinmindcanbeveryhelpfulinallowingstudentstoacquireinsightintoaculture.OnestudycomparedthelevelandqualityofrecollectionwhentwodifferentgroupsofstudentslearnedaboutCôteD’Ivoire(Scott&Huntington,2000).OnegroupstudiedafactsheetandasecondstudiedapoemaboutcolonialisminCôteD’Ivoire.TheresearchersfoundthatgroupthatstudiedthefactsheetretainedverylittleinformationabouttheCôteD’Ivoireculture,whereasthegroupthatreadthepoemshowedacapacitytoempathizewiththepersonalhistoryoftheCôteD’Ivoirepeople.FilmFilmandtelevisionsegmentsofferstudentsanopportunitytowitnessbehaviorsthatarenotobviousintexts.Filmisoftenoneofthemorecurrentandcomprehensivewaystoencapsulatethelook,feel,andrhythmofaculture.Filmalsoconnectsstudentswithlanguageandculturalissuessimultaneously(Stephens,2001),suchasdepictingconversationaltimingortakingturnsinconversation.Atleastonestudyshowedthatstudentsachievedsignificantgainsinoverallculturalknowledgeafterwatchingvideosfromthetargetcultureintheclassroom(Herron,Cole,Corrie,&Dubreil,1999). V.ConclusionBywayofconclusion,weshouldreiteratethemainthemeofthepresentstudy:theteachingofcultureshouldbecomeanintegralpartofforeignlanguageinstruction.‘Cultureshouldbeourmessagetostudentsandlanguageourmedium’(Peck,1998).Frontiershaveopenedandneverbeforehavenationscomeclosertooneanother—intheory,atleast.Asaresult,peoplefromdifferentculturesweavetheirlivesintoaninternationalfabricthatisbeginningtofrayattheedgesbyvirtueofmiscommunicationandpropaganda.Inordertoavoidthisignominiousculturalandpoliticaldisintegration,andfosterempathyandunderstanding,teachersshould‘presentstudentswithatruepictureorrepresentationofanothercultureandlanguage’(Singhal,1998).Andthiswillbeachievedonlyifculturalawarenessisviewedassomethingmorethanmerelyacompartmentalizedsubjectwithintheforeignlanguagecurriculum;thatis,whenculture“inhabits”theclassroomandundergirdseverylanguageactivity.AccordingtoSinghal(1998),languageteachersoughttoreceivebothexperientialandacademictraining,withtheaimofbecoming‘mediatorsincultureteaching’(ibid.).Atanyrate,cultureteachingshouldaimtofoster‘empathywiththeculturalnormsofthetargetlanguagecommunity’and‘anincreasedawarenessofone’sown‘culturallogic’inrelationtoothers’(Willems,1992,citedinByram,Morganetal.,1994:67).Thisculturallogic,though,isachievedthrougharecognitionofotherness,andofthelimitationsofone’sownculturalidentity’(Killick&Poveda,1997).Onapracticalnote,cultureteachingshouldallowlearnerstoincreasetheirknowledgeofthetargetcultureintermsofpeople’swayoflife,values,attitudes,andbeliefs,andhowthesemanifestthemselvesorarecouchedinlinguisticcategoriesandforms.Morespecifically,theteachingofcultureshouldmakelearnersawareofspeechacts,connotations,etiquette,thatis,appropriateorinappropriatebehavior,aswellasprovidethemwiththeopportunitytoactoutbeingamemberofthetargetculture.Equippedwiththeknowledgethatsuchnotionsas“superior”or“inferior”culturesarenothingbutsweepinggeneralizationsemanatingfromlackofknowledgeanddisrespecttootherhumanbeingswithdifferentworldviews,learnerscandelveintothetargetlanguageanduseitasatoolnotonlytocommunicateinthecountrywhereitisspokenbutalsotogiveasecond(orthird)voicetotheirthoughts,thusflyinginthefaceofculturalconventionsandstereotypes.Tothisend,languageeducatorsshould‘notonlyworktodispelstereotypes[and]pocketsofignorance…but…contributetolearners’understandingthatbeginswithawarenessofselfandleadstoawarenessofothers’(Singhal,1998).Thereiscertainlyroomforimprovement,andthingsbodewellforthefuture.Beyondcurrentpractice,therearestillsomeareas,suchastheonesidentifiedby Lessard-Clouston(1997),thatneedfurtherinvestigation.Forexample,istheresuchathingasa‘naturalorder’inL2/FLcultureacquisition?Whatculturalpatternsdoforeignlanguagestudentsneedtolearnfirstandatwhatlevels?Furthermore,arethesepatternsbestlearntbymeansofimmersioninthetargetculture,orarethereanytechniquesobviatingthisneed?Mostimportantly,aretheseacquiredpatternsmaintainedoverthelonghaul,oristheresomekindofregressionatwork?Oncethesebesettingissuesareinvestigated,thenextstepistodosomeresearchoncontentandmaterialsdesignforculturalsyllabuses(seeNostrand,1967).Itgoeswithoutsayingthatforeignlanguageteachersshouldbeforeigncultureteachers,havingtheabilitytoexperienceandanalyzeboththehomeandtargetcultures(Byram,Morganetal.,1994:73).Theonusisonthemtoconveyculturalmeaningandintroducestudentstoakindoflearning‘whichchallengesandmodifiestheirperspectiveontheworldandtheirculturalidentityasmembersofagivensocialandnationalgroup’(ibid.).Unfortunately,byteachingaboutothercultures,foreignlanguageeducatorsdonotnecessarilynipprejudiceinthebud,sotospeak;culturalbiascanstillplaguetheveryaspectsofthetargetculturewhichteachers‘choosetoindictoradvocate’,asCormeraie(1997)insightfullyremarks.Itishopedthatthepresentpaperhascontrivedtoclarifymostoftheissuesitsetouttoinvestigate,andhashelpedcontributetoabetterunderstandingofcultureanditsimportanceintheforeignlanguageclassroom.'